{"key":"loop","title":"Closed loops","kanji":"環","one_line":"Separate every stream, measure every gram, turn urine, scraps and residue into fertiliser, feed and carbon, export the rest.","thesis":"A fully automated closed-loop site is not a sealed bubble; it is a metered set of separated streams (yellow, brown, green, grey, air) each with one primary product, one fallback route and a daily mass-balance check. The record shows water and O2 close first (Lunar Palace 365 reached 98.2% material closure and 99.7% urine recovery) while solids lag (67%) and food is the most expensive loop (LMLSTP grew <5% of calories while wheat supplied 25% of O2). The non-obvious insight is that on Earth the atmosphere is a free buffer, so ORIJO should not chase gas closure at all: it should close nutrients and water, use plant CO2 uptake as a crop sensor, and deliberately export carbon as biochar and mycelium infill. Nitrogen is the inverse problem: four people excrete about 12.8 kg N per year, far more than an indoor farm can absorb, so the loop must store N in a solid 'battery' (zeolite, struvite) and ship it out. Automation is mostly chemistry, sensors and logs, not robots; the robot's job is swapping sealed cartridges.","subsystems":[{"id":"LOOP-S1","name":"Metabolic ledger and mass-balance accounting","function":"Define what has to be closed per person per day and keep a live, sensor-reconciled ledger of water, carbon, O2, N, P, K and Na for every stream on the site.","how_it_works":"The design basis is the NASA BVAD metabolic interface: an 82 kg reference adult consumes 0.895 kg O2, exhales 1.085 kg CO2 (RQ 0.86), eats 0.80 kg dry food and drinks 3.2 kg water per day, and returns 1.42 kg urine water plus 0.061 kg urine solids, 0.13 kg faeces (wet) and 2.95 kg respiration/perspiration water. Every stream on site is metered (load cells on bins and tanks, flow meters, EC/pH/ORP/NH4/NO2/NO3 probes, CO2/O2 NDIR and electrochemical cells) and the controller reconciles inflow minus outflow minus storage change for each element daily; the residual is the leak or fault signal. Biosphere 2 showed why this matters: material closure turned a mysterious O2 loss into an accountable carbon sink (concrete carbonation) found by 13C/12C mass balance. Closure is reported as the share of each element's daily throughput supplied from on-site recycling, by element, never as one headline percentage.","options":[{"name":"BVAD-anchored digital ledger (per-element closure dashboard)","principle":"Stoichiometric mass balance with sensor reconciliation; per-element closure = recycled / required","maturity":"PILOT","trl":5,"trl_why":"Used in every analogue (BIOS-3, Biosphere 2, CEEF, Lunar Palace) as a research instrument; not yet a productised household controller.","key_numbers":[{"label":"O2 consumed","value":0.895,"unit":"kg/person/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"label":"CO2 produced","value":1.085,"unit":"kg/person/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"label":"Food solids consumed (dry)","value":0.8,"unit":"kg/person/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"label":"Urine water + solids","value":"1.420 + 0.061","unit":"kg/person/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"label":"Urine nitrogen","value":8.8,"unit":"g N/person/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-fumasoli-2016"]}],"best_for":"All environments; mandatory for E3 desert, E4 polar, E8 lunar where imports are expensive","limits":"BVAD is an astronaut reference (82 kg, exercise regime); civilian guests vary 20-40%. Pathogen and pharmaceutical status cannot be inferred from mass balance."}]},{"id":"LOOP-S2","name":"Yellow loop: urine nutrient recovery","function":"Turn urine, the most nutrient-dense excreted stream (8.8 g N/person/day), into a stable, legal, storable fertiliser and clean water instead of sewage.","how_it_works":"Stored urine hydrolyses urea to ammonia and its pH rises, which drives NH3 loss and odour. Three proven routes stabilise it. (a) Nitrification: in a moving-bed biofilm reactor ammonia-oxidising bacteria convert about half the NH4+ to NO2-/NO3-, which drops pH and stops volatilisation; the ammonium-nitrate liquor is then distilled to a concentrate (the Aurin route, 71 W/cap primary energy for distillation, 13 W/cap for nitrification). (b) Struvite: dose Mg2+ (MgCl2, bittern or calcined magnesite) so MgNH4PO4.6H2O precipitates; about 95% of phosphate is removed but only a few percent of N. (c) Ion exchange: pass stored urine through natural clinoptilolite, which takes up NH4+ (and K+) and leaves salinity behind; regenerate with a salt rinse to a clean liquid fertiliser or apply the charged zeolite directly as a slow-release soil amendment. Nitrite accumulation and acid-tolerant AOB are the known failure modes of (a), so it needs online NO2- sensing and controlled dosing.","options":[{"name":"Nitrification + distillation (Eawag VUNA / VunaNexus Aurin)","principle":"Biological partial nitrification stabilises N; distillation concentrates all nutrients; pasteurised liquid fertiliser","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Authorised fertiliser product in Switzerland since 2018, building-scale plants operating (ESA Paris HQ 2023, six projects reported in 2025); not yet a household appliance.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Primary energy, distillation","value":71,"unit":"W per capita","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-fumasoli-2016"]},{"label":"Primary energy, nitrification","value":13,"unit":"W per capita","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-fumasoli-2016"]},{"label":"Max nitrification rate (MBBR)","value":930,"unit":"mg N/L/day","basis":"measured","sources":["src-fumasoli-2016"]},{"label":"Aurin N-P-K","value":"4.2-0.4-1.8","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-time-aurin-2026"]},{"label":"Treatment capacity (8,000 L urine/day)","value":8000,"unit":"L urine/day","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-time-aurin-2026","src-popsci-aurin-2025"],"note":"Sources conflict on timing: Popular Science (Dec 2025) quotes co-founder N. de Chambrier saying they treat about 8,000 L/day now; TIME (15 Oct 2026) presents about 8,000 L/day as a target by mid-2027. Treat as company claim, status unclear."}],"best_for":"T2 hotel and T4 research station (enough urine to keep a biofilm fed); E1 rooftop clusters","limits":"Distillation energy dominates; start-up needs supervision; household-scale biofilm starves on intermittent occupancy."},{"name":"Struvite precipitation","principle":"Mg dosing to supersaturate magnesium ammonium phosphate; settle and dry crystals","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Struvite recovery is commercial on municipal sludge-reject water, but from source-separated urine it has run only as village/pilot reactors (Nepal, eThekwini, lab stirred tanks); no commercial household or building product verified.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Phosphate removal from urine","value":95,"unit":"% (average)","basis":"measured","sources":["src-wilsenach-2007"]},{"label":"N recovered in struvite alone vs with zeolite/biochar","value":"5.7 vs 9.8","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-deboer-2018"]},{"label":"Magnesite calcination optimum","value":"700 C for 1 h","unit":"process condition","basis":"measured","sources":["src-krahenbuhl-2016"]}],"best_for":"All environments as a P-capture polishing step; cheap where Mg is local (seawater bittern on E6 coast)","limits":"Recovers P, not N; needs Mg supply; fine crystals clog small reactors."},{"name":"Clinoptilolite ion exchange (zeolite nitrogen battery)","principle":"NH4+ selective cation exchange onto natural zeolite; elution by salt rinse or direct soil use","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"Lab and pilot results (97% transfer, 86% overall recovery); no certified product or automated household unit found.","key_numbers":[{"label":"NH4+ transferred from stored urine onto clinoptilolite","value":97,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-beler-baykal-2011"]},{"label":"Recovered from exhausted zeolite","value":88,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-beler-baykal-2011"]},{"label":"Overall N recovery","value":86,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-beler-baykal-2011"]}],"best_for":"T3 home, E4 polar, E5 mountain (no biology to keep alive, solid product stores and ships)","limits":"Zeolite mass is large (tens of kg per household per week at 10-20 mg N/g, calculated in v3); salt regenerant adds Na/K load; pharmaceutical fate on zeolite not fully characterised."}]},{"id":"LOOP-S3","name":"Brown and green loop: solids, larvae, compost, digestion, char","function":"Convert faeces, kitchen waste and inedible crop biomass (the dominant solid stream in any food-growing site) into feed, fertiliser, energy or stable carbon.","how_it_works":"Inedible biomass is the elephant: a full BVAD crop diet produces 6.66 kg fresh inedible biomass per person per day, versus 0.13 kg faeces. Black soldier fly larvae eat wet kitchen waste over a cycle of roughly two weeks (v3 planning value 10-14 days) and, as prepupae, self-harvest by climbing a ramp into a bucket (shown in many operating demos), leaving frass. Thermophilic composting kills pathogens when the mass stays at 55 C or more for 3 days in-vessel (15 days with 5 turnings in a windrow), the US PFRP rule. Household anaerobic digesters (1-150 m3) convert wet organics to CH4/CO2 and a liquid digestate, but sour (pH 5.3-6.1 observed) when overfed or cold. Pyrolysis at roughly 400-800 C turns dry lignocellulose into biochar, which locks carbon and, mainly on acidic tropical soils, raises yields. The Lunar Palace programme shows the frontier: solid-waste recovery rose from 41% degradation (105 days) to 67% (370 days) while water, O2 and urine reached near-total closure.","options":[{"name":"Black soldier fly larvae bin with self-harvest ramp","principle":"Insect bioconversion; prepupal migration does the harvesting","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":7,"trl_why":"Kits and DIY bins widely used; automated household units exist only as patents/prototypes; industrial players failed financially, not technically.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Pilot: food waste to larvae","value":"190 kg -> 79 kg","unit":"kg","basis":"measured","sources":["src-gligorescu-2020"]},{"label":"FCR (dry matter basis)","value":"1.7-3.6","unit":"ratio","basis":"measured","sources":["src-gligorescu-2020"]},{"label":"Larval yield per tonne food waste (dry larvae; basis of FW as reported)","value":"207-403","unit":"kg/t","basis":"measured","sources":["src-lopes-2024"]},{"label":"Capital raised by five failed insect companies","value":777,"unit":"million USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-insectinstitute-777m"]},{"label":"Self-harvest by prepupal migration up a ramp (shown operating; automated devices patented)","value":"demonstrated","unit":"qualitative","basis":"reported","sources":["src-yt-bsf","src-pat-es3034813","src-pat-us20180360008"]},{"label":"Contaminant classes reviewed for partition into frass (phthalates, BFRs, PFAS)","value":3,"unit":"classes","basis":"reported","sources":["src-kolobaric-2026"]}],"best_for":"E2, E3, E6, E7 and heated interiors in E4/E5 (larvae need warmth); sites with fish or poultry to eat larvae","limits":"Fresh frass is unstable until matured; plastics and PFAS partition into frass; EU feed rules restrict which substrates larvae for food animals may eat (status to verify per jurisdiction; not sourced in this sweep)."},{"name":"In-vessel thermophilic composter","principle":"Aerobic oxidation self-heats to >=55 C; time-temperature hygienisation","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Codified in 40 CFR 503 and EU national rules; many in-vessel units sold.","key_numbers":[{"label":"PFRP in-vessel","value":"55 C for 3 days","unit":"time-temperature","basis":"reported","sources":["src-cfr-503"]},{"label":"PFRP windrow","value":"55 C for 15 days, 5 turnings","unit":"time-temperature","basis":"reported","sources":["src-cfr-503"]}],"best_for":"Faeces from UDD toilets and crop residue everywhere except E8","limits":"N lost as NH3 unless captured (zeolite/biochar cover); slow; heat lost in cold sites."},{"name":"Household anaerobic digester (HomeBiogas class)","principle":"Mesophilic methanogenesis in a flexible bag reactor; gas to stove, digestate to beds","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Mature household technology (1-150 m3 designs reviewed in 2012); HomeBiogas operates in 100+ countries and won a 2025 USAF contract for 20 Bio-Toilets.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Household digester size range","value":"1-150","unit":"m3","basis":"reported","sources":["src-rajendran-2012"]},{"label":"Final digestate pH, Montana household digesters (custom 5.3, commercial 6.1)","value":"5.3-6.1","unit":"pH","basis":"measured","sources":["src-ebel-2025"]},{"label":"Digestate C:N","value":6.6,"unit":"ratio","basis":"measured","sources":["src-ebel-2025"]},{"label":"USAF Bio-Toilet contract","value":20,"unit":"units","basis":"reported","sources":["src-ctech-homebiogas-2025"]}],"best_for":"E3 desert, E6 coast, E7 steppe (warm); hotel kitchens with steady feed","limits":"Cold climates and intermittent feeding cause souring; gas yield too small to matter for a PV-electric site; digestate still needs hygienisation for edible crops."},{"name":"Small pyrolysis kiln / biochar","principle":"Anoxic thermal decomposition of dry lignocellulose to char + syngas heat","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Kilns and continuous units sold; household automated units scarce; agronomic benefit is soil-dependent.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Average yield effect, tropics","value":25,"unit":"% increase","basis":"measured","sources":["src-jeffery-2017"]},{"label":"Average yield effect, temperate","value":0,"unit":"% (no effect)","basis":"measured","sources":["src-jeffery-2017"]}],"best_for":"E2 forest, E7 steppe (straw, prunings); tropical acidic soils","limits":"Burns the nitrogen; smoke and permitting; benefit in temperate soils is carbon storage, not yield."}]},{"id":"LOOP-S4","name":"Air loop: CO2/O2 exchange between people, plants and algae","function":"Use crops (and optionally microalgae) to fix CO2 and return O2, with a pressure-buffered transfer between living and growing volumes.","how_it_works":"Photosynthesis returns roughly one O2 per CO2 fixed; how much area a person needs depends on light and crop: BVAD gives 56 g O2/m2/day for wheat and 7.8 for lettuce, so one person's 0.895 kg O2 needs about 16 m2 of wheat or about 115 m2 of lettuce at nominal rates (calculated). NASA LMLSTP Phase I kept one person's air for 15 days on 11.2 m2 of high-light wheat; Phase III wheat supplied about 25% of four people's O2. Microalgae (Limnospira) in an air-lift photobioreactor reach about 1 g O2 per litre per day at high light, so a person needs roughly 860 L of reactor (calculated). A sealed volume needs a variable-volume 'lung' (Biosphere 2: 43,000 m3 of expansion on 140,000 m3) or it breathes through leaks; and any exposed fresh concrete or organic-rich soil is a hidden CO2/O2 sink.","options":[{"name":"Crop-canopy air regeneration in a sealed farm module","principle":"CO2 enrichment of plant stands from human exhaust; O2-rich return air","maturity":"PILOT","trl":6,"trl_why":"Demonstrated at human scale in BIOS-3, LMLSTP, CEEF and Lunar Palace; never productised for buildings.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Wheat O2 production (nominal)","value":56,"unit":"g O2/m2/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"label":"Lettuce O2 production (nominal)","value":7.78,"unit":"g O2/m2/day","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"label":"Wheat area that kept one person's air for 15 days","value":11.2,"unit":"m2","basis":"measured","sources":["src-barta-lmlstp"]},{"label":"BPC lifetime O2 produced from 20 m2","value":540,"unit":"kg over >1200 days","basis":"measured","sources":["src-wheeler-1996"]}],"best_for":"E4 polar and E8 lunar (closed envelope is free); farm modules everywhere as CO2 enrichment","limits":"Plants want 0.10-0.20 kPa CO2 and ~75% RH, at the edge of human comfort; ethylene/VOC build-up; harvest days crash O2 output."},{"name":"Microalgae photobioreactor (Limnospira / Chlorella)","principle":"Axenic continuous culture; light-limited O2 productivity","maturity":"PILOT","trl":5,"trl_why":"MELiSSA C4a ran 276 days connected to nitrifier and ~110 days gas-linked to a rat crew; ArtemISS flew on ISS in 2017.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Max O2 productivity","value":1.35,"unit":"mmol O2/L/h","basis":"measured","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2022"]},{"label":"PBR O2 vs 3-rat demand","value":"1.5-2.1 vs 1.44-2.1","unit":"g O2/h","basis":"measured","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2021"]},{"label":"PBR volume per person at max productivity","value":860,"unit":"L","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2022","src-bvad-2022"]}],"best_for":"E8 lunar, E4 polar research (T4); as an O2 trim loop, not the primary source, on Earth","limits":"Photoinhibition above ~1,700 umol/m2/s; nitrite >~40 mg N/L inhibits; contamination risk; electric light energy."}]},{"id":"LOOP-S5","name":"Integrated bioregenerative loop (the analogue lineage)","function":"Benchmark what whole-system closure has actually achieved, and where it broke, to set honest targets.","how_it_works":"Four generations of experiments: BIOS-3 (1972-1984, 315 m3, 63 m2 crops, 91% total closure, dried meat imported), Biosphere 2 (1991-93, 1.27 ha, ~10%/yr leak, O2 crash 21 to 14% in 16 months, O2 injected), CEEF in Aomori (2005-07, 150 m2 crops, 2 crew + 2 goats, 82-95% of crew food), Lunar Palace 1 (2014, 105 days, 55% food; 2017-18, 370 days, 98.2% material closure, 99.7% urine, 67% solid waste). MELiSSA builds it compartment by compartment (C1 thermophilic waste degradation, C2 photoheterotrophs, C3 nitrifiers, C4a cyanobacteria, C4b higher plants, C5 crew) and is the only programme designed for deterministic control. The pattern: water and O2 close first, food second, solids and salts last.","options":[{"name":"Ecosystem-type closure (Biosphere 2 style)","principle":"Many species, soil, self-organisation","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"Ran 2 years with 8 people but required O2 injection and CO2 scrubbing; unpredictable dynamics.","key_numbers":[{"label":"O2 decline","value":"21 -> 14","unit":"% over 16 months","basis":"measured","sources":["src-severinghaus-1994","src-dempster-1999"]},{"label":"CO2 taken up by concrete carbonation","value":"about 600 kmol (26 t) over 15,800 m2","unit":"kmol","basis":"reported","sources":["src-dempster-1999"],"note":"Dempster 1999: 'on the order of 600 kmol, or 26 t' over about 15,800 m2 of exposed concrete; an order-of-magnitude estimate from isotope analysis (Severinghaus 1994), not a direct measurement."},{"label":"Leak rate","value":10,"unit":"%/yr (about)","basis":"measured","sources":["src-dempster-1999","src-doe-berac-2003"]}],"best_for":"None as life support; useful as a research mesocosm","limits":"Soil carbon and concrete are uncontrolled sinks/sources; 700 kW average electric demand."},{"name":"Engineered higher-plant + insect + waste loop (Lunar Palace style)","principle":"Crops for food/O2, mealworms for protein, solid-waste bioconversion, urine N recycling, physico-chemical backup","maturity":"PILOT","trl":6,"trl_why":"370-day crewed ground demonstration with 98.2% closure; not flown, not productised.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Material closure, Lunar Palace 365","value":98.2,"unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-fu-2021-biorxiv","src-fu-2025-actaastro"]},{"label":"Urine recovery","value":99.7,"unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-fu-2021-biorxiv"]},{"label":"Solid waste recovery","value":67,"unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-fu-2021-biorxiv"]},{"label":"Food regenerated, 105-day run","value":55,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-fu-2016-ast"]}],"best_for":"T4 research station, T5 lunar; component lessons for T1 farms","limits":"Large crop area (58 m2 for 3-4 people in LP1) and heavy crew time; electricity for lighting not reported in abstracts."},{"name":"Compartmentalised microbial loop (MELiSSA)","principle":"Axenic or defined-culture bioreactors in series with model-based control","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"Pilot plant (about 200 m2) has linked C3-C4a-C5 with rats; full loop with C1/C2 and humans not yet closed.","key_numbers":[{"label":"C3-C4a continuous liquid connection","value":276,"unit":"days","basis":"measured","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2021"]},{"label":"C3 ammonium conversion","value":99,"unit":"% (most of experiment)","basis":"measured","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2021"]},{"label":"Pilot plant floor area","value":200,"unit":"m2 (just over)","basis":"reported","sources":["src-esa-melissa-2019"]}],"best_for":"Space; terrestrial spin-offs (urine nitrification -> Aurin)","limits":"30+ years of development; complexity; rats not humans."}]},{"id":"LOOP-S6","name":"Safety gate: pathogens, pharmaceuticals, salts, plastics","function":"Decide automatically which recycled product may go to edible crops, to ornamentals, or out of the site.","how_it_works":"Each product carries a hazard profile: urine-derived fertilisers carry pharmaceuticals but plant uptake is tiny (0.00004-0.0002% of applied mass in lettuce, up to 2.5% of a therapeutic dose over 70 years of daily eating at worst-case spiking); struvite plus zeolite gave the purest product with the lowest uptake; frass concentrates plastics, phthalates and PFAS; recirculating hydroponics accumulates Na and B, so BVAD notes nutrient solutions are routinely dumped. The gate is a rules engine: hygienisation proof (time-temperature log), quarterly lab panels, online EC/Na and NO2-, and a default route to ornamentals or the sanitary holding tank when any proof is missing.","options":[{"name":"Product-class routing with logged hygienisation","principle":"HACCP-style critical control points + lab verification","maturity":"PILOT","trl":6,"trl_why":"Aurin authorisation shows a regulator will accept it for a defined process; no automated household version.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Pharmaceutical uptake by lettuce from UDF","value":"0.00004-0.0002","unit":"% of applied mass","basis":"measured","sources":["src-rodriguez-2025"]},{"label":"70-year cumulative ingestion vs therapeutic dose (worst case)","value":2.5,"unit":"% (up to)","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-rodriguez-2025"]},{"label":"ROS fertiliser references meta-analysed","value":"201 (+23 unpublished)","unit":"references","basis":"reported","sources":["src-schroeder-2026"]}],"best_for":"All","limits":"Rules differ by jurisdiction; no low-cost online pathogen sensor."}]},{"id":"LOOP-S7","name":"Building-material loop: disassembly, passports, grown materials","function":"Keep panels, hinges and infill in use across relocations and convert crop residue into building material instead of waste.","how_it_works":"Design for disassembly uses reversible mechanical joints so components leave intact; a material passport (BIM/IFC-generated, e.g. Madaster) records composition, location and reuse value, linked to each part by an engraved QR code or RFID. Mycelium composites grow a fungal network (e.g. Trametes versicolor) through chopped hemp, flax or straw in moulds for days to weeks, then are heat-killed; they reach useful insulation performance but low strength, and 2026 work shows panels can be regrown and reused over multiple life cycles. In ORIJO the fold-flat panels are the reusable asset (Shikinen lease), while mycelium infill and biochar are the consumable carbon sinks.","options":[{"name":"Material passport + QR-tagged panels","principle":"Persistent component identity and condition data","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Madaster operates in 8 regional sites; QR passports demonstrated in research; EU Digital Product Passport is coming.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Madaster regional sites","value":8,"unit":"sites","basis":"reported","sources":["src-madaster-site"]},{"label":"Registered floor area (2022 statement)","value":"over 16 million","unit":"m2","basis":"reported","sources":["src-madaster-rollout-2022"]},{"label":"Component tag demonstrated for passports","value":"engraved QR code","unit":"qualitative","basis":"reported","sources":["src-qr-passport-2022"]}],"best_for":"All typologies; essential for relocatable modules","limits":"BIM inputs often lack required data; manual steps remain (2019 study)."},{"name":"Mycelium-bound insulation infill from crop residue","principle":"Fungal bio-binding of lignocellulose","maturity":"PILOT","trl":6,"trl_why":"Commercial packaging and acoustic panels exist; building-code insulation approvals are rare; regrowth reuse shown in 2026 research.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Fibres tested (hemp, flax, flax waste, softwood, straw)","value":5,"unit":"types","basis":"measured","sources":["src-elsacker-2019"]},{"label":"Panel reuse by regrowth over multiple life cycles","value":"evaluated (numbers not retrieved)","unit":"qualitative","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bitting-2026"]}],"best_for":"E2, E7 (straw/hemp available), interiors of E4/E5","limits":"Moisture and fire behaviour; low compressive strength; numeric thermal conductivity not retrieved in this sweep (see open problems)."}]}],"projects":[{"id":"P-MELISSA","name":"MELiSSA Pilot Plant (Claude Chipaux Laboratory)","org":"ESA / Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona","country":"Spain / ESA","year_or_period":"1989-present (pilot plant since 2009)","what":"Five-compartment microbial-plant-crew loop; C3 nitrifier, C4a Limnospira PBR and C5 rat isolator connected.","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"276 days C3-C4a, ~110 days gas-linked to rats with O2 held at 19-21%; nitrite peaks and CO2 up to 18,000 ppm show biology needs active control. Spun off urine nitrification (Aurin).","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2021","src-esa-melissa-2019","src-arnau-2025","src-yt-melissa"]},{"id":"P-LP1","name":"Lunar Palace 1 / Yuegong-1 105-day run","org":"Beihang University","country":"China","year_or_period":"Feb-May 2014","what":"3 crew, 21 crop species, mealworms, urine N recycling, solid-waste bioconversion.","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"O2 and water recycled, 55% food regenerated, but only 20.5% urine N and 41% solid-waste degradation: solids are the bottleneck.","sources":["src-fu-2016-ast","src-wiki-yuegong"]},{"id":"P-LP365","name":"Lunar Palace 365","org":"Beihang University","country":"China","year_or_period":"2017-2018 (370 days)","what":"8 volunteers in two rotating groups living in the closed BLSS for 370 days.","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"98.2% material closure, 99.7% urine recovery, 67% solid waste recovery; inoculum now studied for lignocellulose degradation.","sources":["src-fu-2021-biorxiv","src-fu-2025-actaastro","src-liao-2025","src-yt-lp365"]},{"id":"P-BIOS3","name":"BIOS-3","org":"Institute of Biophysics, Krasnoyarsk","country":"USSR / Russia","year_or_period":"1972-1980s","what":"315 m3 sealed steel complex with Chlorella and wheat/vegetable phytotrons; 1-3 crew.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"91% total material closure with 63 m2 crops for 2 crew over ~5 months; water and gas fully closed, food partly (meat imported); high lamp power.","sources":["src-gitelson-1989","src-salisbury-1997","src-wiki-bios3"]},{"id":"P-B2","name":"Biosphere 2 Mission 1","org":"Space Biospheres Ventures (E. Bass)","country":"USA","year_or_period":"Sep 1991 - Sep 1993","what":"8 people, rainforest/ocean/desert/farm biomes under glass, two 'lung' expansion chambers.","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Engineering success (leak <10%/yr) but ecological failure: O2 fell 21% to 14%, pure O2 injected days 475-494; organic-rich soil respired, concrete absorbed CO2. Construction cost on the order of $150M (DOE BERAC 2003).","sources":["src-dempster-1999","src-severinghaus-1994","src-doe-berac-2003","src-yt-b2"]},{"id":"P-SAM","name":"Space Analog for the Moon and Mars (SAM) at Biosphere 2","org":"University of Arizona","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2024-2026","what":"Original Biosphere 2 Test Module converted to a sealed agricultural analogue; CO2 uptake measured by injection to hold 800 ppm.","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"CO2 make-up injection doubles as a plant-photosynthesis sensor, a cheap trick for automated crop-health monitoring.","sources":["src-sam-b2-2026"]},{"id":"P-CEEF","name":"Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF)","org":"Institute for Environmental Sciences, Aomori","country":"Japan","year_or_period":"2005-2007","what":"150 m2 plant module + animal/human module; 2 eco-nauts, 2 goats, 23 crops; P/C gas separation between modules.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"82-95% of crew food and 79-100% of goat feed grown inside; O2 and CO2 were physically separated and transferred between modules, avoiding the Biosphere 2 shared-atmosphere trap.","sources":["src-nitta-2010","src-tako-2008"]},{"id":"P-BPC","name":"NASA Biomass Production Chamber","org":"NASA Kennedy Space Center (CELSS)","country":"USA","year_or_period":"1988-1990s","what":"20 m2, 113 m3 closed crop chamber for wheat, soybean, lettuce, potato.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":">1200 days near-continuous with no major failures: 196 kg edible biomass, 540 kg O2, 94,700 kg condensate, 739 kg CO2 fixed.","sources":["src-wheeler-1996"]},{"id":"P-LMLSTP","name":"Lunar-Mars Life Support Test Project","org":"NASA Johnson Space Center","country":"USA","year_or_period":"1995-1997","what":"Four crewed tests (15, 30, 60, 91 days) integrating wheat with physico-chemical air/water systems and an incinerator.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"11.2 m2 wheat sustained 1 person's air (15 d); in 91 days wheat gave ~25% of O2 for 4 crew, grown food <5% of calories; water recycled 10 times.","sources":["src-barta-lmlstp"]},{"id":"P-BIOPLEX","name":"BIO-Plex","org":"NASA JSC","country":"USA","year_or_period":"late 1990s - early 2000s","what":"Planned integrated bioregenerative test complex for long-duration crewed tests.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"Progress reported in 2001; no crewed integrated test found in this sweep; a 2025 review attributes NASA capability gaps to funding cuts and programme discontinuations. Exact cancellation date not confirmed.","sources":["src-villarreal-bioplex","src-porterfield-2025"]},{"id":"P-AURIN","name":"VunaNexus Aurin","org":"VunaNexus (Eawag spin-off)","country":"Switzerland","year_or_period":"2018-present","what":"Nitrified, filtered, pasteurised, distilled urine fertiliser from urine-diverting toilets and dry urinals.","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Provisional Swiss authorisation Feb 2016 (ornamentals), extended to edible crops by the Federal Office for Agriculture in 2018; ~70 urine-diverting toilets at ESA HQ Paris (2023); treatment plants in six projects (Dec 2025); about 8,000 L/day claimed (current per 2025 interview, target per TIME 2026); TIME Best Inventions 2026. Proves a regulatory path exists.","sources":["src-time-aurin-2026","src-esa-hq-aurin","src-popsci-aurin-2025","src-krause-2021","src-fumasoli-2016","src-pat-ep4509470","src-pat-ep3548439","src-eawag-aurin"]},{"id":"P-VUNA-ETHEKWINI","name":"VUNA urine treatment in eThekwini","org":"Eawag / eThekwini Water and Sanitation","country":"South Africa","year_or_period":"c. 2010-2015 (approximate)","what":"Compared struvite, nitrification and other treatments for urine from the large number of urine-diverting dehydration toilets installed in eThekwini.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"Context in which the nitrification/distillation route was scaled; Anyground reading: chemistry worked, collection and transport of urine from dispersed toilets is the hard part.","sources":["src-watersa-2015","src-fumasoli-2016","src-udert-2012"]},{"id":"P-NEPAL-STRUVITE","name":"Low-cost struvite production in Nepal","org":"Eawag","country":"Nepal","year_or_period":"2011-2016 (publications)","what":"Village struvite reactors on collected urine with bittern/magnesite Mg.","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"Chemistry is simple; Mg cost and narrow calcination window (700 C, 1 h) decide viability.","sources":["src-etter-2011","src-krahenbuhl-2016"]},{"id":"P-HOMEBIOGAS","name":"HomeBiogas","org":"HomeBiogas Ltd.","country":"Israel","year_or_period":"2012-present","what":"Flexible-bag household digesters and Bio-Toilet units for food waste and manure/faeces.","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Sold in 100+ countries, 20-unit USAF Bio-Toilet contract (2025), 900 El Salvador schools; works best in warm climates with steady feeding.","sources":["src-ctech-homebiogas-2025","src-ticker-homebiogas-2025","src-yt-homebiogas"]},{"id":"P-MILL","name":"Mill Food Recycler","org":"Mill Industries","country":"USA","year_or_period":"c. 2022-present (launch year not confirmed)","what":"Kitchen bin that turns scraps into shelf-stable grounds overnight (company claim; mechanism reference: generic under-sink separator-dryer patent US8464970B2, not a Mill patent); grounds marketed for gardens and chicken feed.","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Claims 80% volume reduction and 26 million lb diverted; $999 device; Whole Foods deployment from 2027. Drying is a stabiliser, not a loop: it buys storage time for BSF/compost.","sources":["src-mill-site","src-techcrunch-mill-2025","src-pat-us8464970"]},{"id":"P-YNSECT","name":"Ynsect","org":"Ynsect","country":"France","year_or_period":"to Dec 2025","what":"Mealworm protein giga-factory (Ynfarm).","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Raised >$600M, judicial liquidation Dec 2025; peak revenue EUR 17.8M (2021), 2023 net loss EUR 79.7M; insect protein costlier than the feed it replaces.","sources":["src-techcrunch-ynsect","src-insectinstitute-777m"]},{"id":"P-ASPIRE","name":"Aspire Food Group","org":"Aspire","country":"Canada","year_or_period":"to 2025","what":"150,000 sq ft automated cricket plant.","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"~$53.2M raised; ran at about half capacity; receivership May 2025.","sources":["src-insectinstitute-777m"]},{"id":"P-ENORM","name":"Enorm Biofactory","org":"Enorm","country":"Denmark","year_or_period":"to 2025","what":"Industrial BSF plant.","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"~$57M raised; bankrupt Nov 2025, 'sales were not as expected'.","sources":["src-insectinstitute-777m"]},{"id":"P-AGROLOOP","name":"AgroLoop","org":"AgroLoop","country":"Hungary","year_or_period":"to 2026","what":"Insect bioconversion plant.","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"~$42M raised; bankruptcy Jan 2026; construction consumed funds before commercial production.","sources":["src-insectinstitute-777m"]},{"id":"P-GOTERRA","name":"Goterra","org":"Goterra","country":"Australia","year_or_period":"to Jul 2026","what":"Decentralised modular BSF units at customer sites processing food waste.","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"~$25.2M raised; voluntary administration June 2026, then creditors voted for liquidation (reported 10 July 2026) after a sale process (22 interested parties) failed. Revenue A$1.43M in the 11 months to 31 May 2026 against an A$8.33M operating loss; A$11.2M creditor claims at appointment. Even on-site, waste-fee-funded BSF did not sustain a business: treat BSF as an internal service, not a revenue line.","sources":["src-insectinstitute-777m","src-smartcompany-goterra-2026"]},{"id":"P-MADASTER","name":"Madaster","org":"Madaster","country":"Netherlands (8 regional sites)","year_or_period":"c. 2017-present","what":"Online registry generating material passports from BIM/IFC or Excel.","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Widely cited passport platform (over 16 million m2 registered by its own 2022 statement); BIM data quality and manual steps are the bottleneck.","sources":["src-madaster-site","src-madaster-rollout-2022","src-honic-2024"]},{"id":"P-BOZEMAN-AD","name":"Bozeman household digester case study","org":"Montana State University","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2023-2024","what":"12 households, commercial vs custom digesters, 12 weeks.","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Final digestate pH 5.3 (custom prototype) and 6.1 (commercial); C:N 6.6; users found the custom design more user-friendly; cold climate a challenge; 87% would still recommend.","sources":["src-ebel-2025"]},{"id":"P-ARTEMISS","name":"ArtemISS photobioreactor on ISS","org":"ESA / MELiSSA","country":"ESA","year_or_period":"Dec 2017","what":"Limnospira culture flown to the ISS.","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Showed microalgae produce O2 from CO2 in orbit; the terrestrial PBR scale-up question (hundreds of litres per person) remains.","sources":["src-esa-melissa-2019"]}],"papers":[{"id":"PA-bvad-2022","title":"Life Support Baseline Values and Assumptions Document (Rev2)","authors":"Ewert MK, Chen TT, Powell CD (eds.)","year":2022,"venue":"NASA/TP-2015-218570/REV2","doi_or_url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20210024855/downloads/BVAD_2.15.22-final.pdf","finding":"Reference adult: 0.895 kg O2 in, 1.085 kg CO2 out, 0.80 kg dry food, 1.42 kg urine water per day; full crop diet needs 65.3 m2/person and 90-100 kg fertiliser salt/person/yr.","type":"standard"},{"id":"PA-fu-2021","title":"Establishment of a closed artificial ecosystem to ensure human long-term survival on the moon","authors":"Fu Y-M, Yi Z-H, Du Y et al.","year":2021,"venue":"bioRxiv (published Acta Astronautica 2025)","doi_or_url":"10.1101/2021.01.12.426282","finding":"370-day Lunar Palace 365: 98.2% material closure, 99.7% urine recovery, 67% solid waste recovery.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-fu-2016","title":"How to Establish a Bioregenerative Life Support System for Long-Term Crewed Missions to the Moon or Mars","authors":"Fu Y et al.","year":2016,"venue":"Astrobiology 16:925-936","doi_or_url":"10.1089/ast.2016.1477","finding":"105-day Lunar Palace 1: 55% of food regenerated, 20.5% urine N recovery, 41% solid-waste degradation.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-gitelson-1989","title":"Long-term experiments on man's stay in biological life-support system","authors":"Gitelson II, Terskov IA, Kovrov BG, Lisovskii GM et al.","year":1989,"venue":"Advances in Space Research 9(8):65-71","doi_or_url":"10.1016/0273-1177(89)90030-6","finding":"BIOS-3: 2 crew + 63 m2 crops under 130 W/m2 PAR achieved 91% total closure of material turnover over 5 months.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-salisbury-1997","title":"Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support","authors":"Salisbury FB, Gitelson JI, Lisovsky GM","year":1997,"venue":"BioScience 47(9):575-585","doi_or_url":"10.2307/1313164","finding":"Landmark English review of BIOS-3 (1972 onward); full numbers not retrieved (paywall).","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-dempster-1999","title":"Biosphere 2 engineering design","authors":"Dempster WF","year":1999,"venue":"Ecological Engineering 13:31-42","doi_or_url":"https://ecotechnics.edu/wp-content/uploads/backup/2011/08/Ecol-Eng-1999-Bio-2-Engineering-Design-Dempster.pdf","finding":"Lungs of 43,000 m3 on 140,000 m3 cut leakage to ~10%/yr; about 600 kmol CO2 (26 t) carbonated 15,800 m2 of concrete; 700 kW average power.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-severinghaus-1994","title":"Oxygen loss in Biosphere 2","authors":"Severinghaus JP, Broecker WS, Dempster WF, MacCallum T, Wahlen M","year":1994,"venue":"Eos 75","doi_or_url":"10.1029/94EO00285","finding":"O2 fell from 21% to 14% in 16 months because organic-rich soils respired and the CO2 reacted with concrete.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-nitta-2010","title":"CEEF: Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities","authors":"Tako Y, Arai R, Tsuga S et al.","year":2010,"venue":"OpenAlex record (venue not retrieved)","doi_or_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?search=CEEF%20CLOSED%20ECOLOGY%20EXPERIMENT%20FACILITIES","finding":"With 150 m2 of crops, 82-95% of two crew's food and 79-100% of goat feed were produced inside (2005-2007).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-wheeler-1996","title":"NASA's Biomass Production Chamber: a testbed for bioregenerative life support studies","authors":"Wheeler RM, Mackowiak CL, Stutte GW, Sager JC et al.","year":1996,"venue":"Advances in Space Research 18(4-5):215-224","doi_or_url":"10.1016/0273-1177(95)00880-N","finding":"20 m2 over >1200 days produced 196 kg edible biomass, 540 kg O2 and 94,700 kg condensate while fixing 739 kg CO2.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-barta-lmlstp","title":"Closure of Regenerative Life Support Systems: Results of the Lunar-Mars Life Support Test Project","authors":"Barta D, Henninger D, Edeen M, Lewis J","year":2006,"venue":"NASA NTRS 20080026014 / ICES","doi_or_url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20080026014","finding":"11.2 m2 of wheat revitalised one person's air for 15 days; in the 91-day test wheat supplied ~25% of O2 for 4 crew and food <5% of calories.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-garcia-gragera-2021","title":"Integration of Nitrifying, Photosynthetic and Animal Compartments at the MELiSSA Pilot Plant","authors":"Garcia-Gragera D, Arnau C, Peiro E et al.","year":2021,"venue":"Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences 8:750616","doi_or_url":"10.3389/fspas.2021.750616","finding":"C3-C4a ran 276 days; the 83 L PBR delivered 1.5-2.1 g O2/h for three rats with 99% ammonium conversion upstream.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-garcia-gragera-2022","title":"Dynamics of long-term continuous culture of Limnospira indica in an air-lift photobioreactor","authors":"Garcia-Gragera D, Peiro E, Arnau C, Cornet JF, Dussap CG, Godia F","year":2022,"venue":"Microbial Biotechnology 15(3):931-948","doi_or_url":"10.1111/1751-7915.13882","finding":"Max O2 productivity 1.35 mmol/L/h at D = 0.025 1/h and 930 umol/m2/s; photoinhibition above 1,700 umol/m2/s.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-godia-2002","title":"MELISSA: a loop of interconnected bioreactors to develop life support in space","authors":"Godia F, Albiol J, Montesinos JL et al.","year":2002,"venue":"Journal of Biotechnology","doi_or_url":"10.1016/S0168-1656(02)00222-5","finding":"Landmark description of the five-compartment MELiSSA architecture (173 citations per Elicit); abstract not retrieved.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-fumasoli-2016","title":"Operating a pilot-scale nitrification/distillation plant for complete nutrient recovery from urine","authors":"Fumasoli A, Etter B, Sterkele B, Morgenroth E, Udert KM","year":2016,"venue":"Water Science and Technology 73(1):215-222","doi_or_url":"10.2166/wst.2015.485","finding":"Distillation needs 71 W/cap and nitrification 13 W/cap primary energy at 8.8 g N/cap/day; nitrite accumulation is the main failure mode.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA-udert-2012","title":"Complete nutrient recovery from source-separated urine by nitrification and distillation","authors":"Udert KM, Waechter M","year":2012,"venue":"Water Research","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.020","finding":"Founding paper of the nitrification-distillation route (306 citations); numeric abstract not retrieved.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-wilsenach-2007","title":"Phosphate and potassium recovery from source separated urine through struvite precipitation","authors":"Wilsenach JA, Schuurbiers CAH, van Loosdrecht MCM","year":2007,"venue":"Water Research 41(2):458-466","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.watres.2006.10.014","finding":"An average 95% of influent phosphate removed as ammonium or potassium struvite.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-etter-2011","title":"Low-cost struvite production using source-separated urine in Nepal","authors":"Etter B, Tilley E, Khadka R, Udert KM","year":2011,"venue":"Water Research","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.watres.2010.10.007","finding":"Village-scale struvite production is feasible; magnesium cost dominates (abstract not retrieved; follow-up 2016 confirms Mg cost is crucial).","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA-beler-baykal-2011","title":"Nitrogen recovery from source-separated human urine using clinoptilolite and preliminary results of its use as fertilizer","authors":"Beler-Baykal B, Allar AD, Bayram S","year":2011,"venue":"Water Science and Technology","doi_or_url":"10.2166/wst.2011.324","finding":"97% of ammonium transferred to clinoptilolite and 88% recovered, 86% overall, while removing urine salinity.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-deboer-2018","title":"Uptake of pharmaceuticals by sorbent-amended struvite fertilisers recovered from human urine and their bioaccumulation in tomato fruit","authors":"de Boer MA, Hammerton M, Slootweg JC","year":2018,"venue":"Water Research","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.017","finding":"Adding zeolite/biochar raised struvite N recovery from 5.7% to 9.8%; struvite + zeolite had the highest purity and lowest pharmaceutical uptake.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-rodriguez-2025","title":"Comparative Exposure Assessment of Crops Grown by Urine-Derived Fertilizer and Crops Irrigated with Reclaimed Water","authors":"Rodriguez EE, Dickman RA, Kennedy BC, Aga DS","year":2025,"venue":"Environmental Science & Technology","doi_or_url":"10.1021/acs.est.4c12633","finding":"Lettuce took up 0.00004-0.0002% of applied pharmaceutical mass; 70-year daily intake is at most 2.5% of a therapeutic dose.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-schroeder-2026","title":"Recycling fertilizers from resource-oriented sanitation systems: product-level characterization and meta-analysis of agronomic performance","authors":"Schroeder C, Haefner F, Krause A et al.","year":2026,"venue":"Frontiers in Environmental Science","doi_or_url":"10.3389/fenvs.2026.1843173","finding":"Across 201 references, excreta-derived fertilisers showed no systematic yield disadvantage versus conventional fertilisers.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-gligorescu-2020","title":"Production and Optimization of Hermetia illucens (L.) Larvae Reared on Food Waste and Utilized as Feed Ingredient","authors":"Gligorescu A, Fischer CH, Larsen P, Noergaard J et al.","year":2020,"venue":"Sustainability 12:9864","doi_or_url":"10.3390/su12239864","finding":"190 kg of food waste produced 79 kg of BSF larvae over 15 pilot batches (FCR 1.7-3.6, dry matter).","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA-lopes-2024","title":"Recirculating frass from food waste bioconversion using black soldier fly larvae: impacts on process efficiency and product quality","authors":"Lopes IG, Wiklicky V, Vinneras B, Yong JWH et al.","year":2024,"venue":"Journal of Environmental Management","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121869","finding":"Recirculating frass raised larval yield per tonne of food waste from 207 to 403 kg (dry) and produced more stable, mature frass.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-kolobaric-2026","title":"Plastics and associated chemical contaminants in black soldier fly larvae food waste bioconversion","authors":"Kolobaric A, Hoffman LC, Chapman J","year":2026,"venue":"Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology","doi_or_url":"10.1080/10643389.2026.2730190","finding":"Many plastic-associated contaminants (phthalates, PFAS, BFRs) partition into frass, a soil re-entry risk (qualitative review).","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-rajendran-2012","title":"Household Biogas Digesters - A Review","authors":"Rajendran K, Aslanzadeh S, Taherzadeh MJ","year":2012,"venue":"Energies 5","doi_or_url":"10.3390/en5082911","finding":"Household digesters range 1-150 m3 (fixed dome, floating drum, plug flow); output depends on pH, temperature, loading, HRT and C/N.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-ebel-2025","title":"Household-scale anaerobic digestion of food waste - a community case study from Bozeman, Montana","authors":"Ebel RH, Eberly JO, Grimberg BI, Seipel TF et al.","year":2025,"venue":"Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems","doi_or_url":"10.3389/fsufs.2025.1561457","finding":"Over 12 weeks in 12 homes digestate fell to pH 5.3-6.1 with C:N 6.6, signalling acidification in a cold climate.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA-jeffery-2017","title":"Biochar boosts tropical but not temperate crop yields","authors":"Jeffery S et al.","year":2017,"venue":"Environmental Research Letters","doi_or_url":"10.1088/1748-9326/aa67bd","finding":"Global meta-analysis: +25% average yield in the tropics, no average effect in temperate latitudes.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-elsacker-2019","title":"Mechanical, physical and chemical characterisation of mycelium-based composites with different types of lignocellulosic substrates","authors":"Elsacker E, Vandelook S, Brancart J, Peeters E et al.","year":2019,"venue":"PLoS ONE 14:e0213954","doi_or_url":"10.1371/journal.pone.0213954","finding":"Across 5 fibres, mycelium composites met thermal-insulation requirements; mechanics depend more on fibre processing (<5 mm chopped, pre-compressed) than chemistry.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-bitting-2026","title":"Regrowing mycelium acoustic and insulation panels: the biofabrication, performance, and environmental impact","authors":"Bitting S, Woesten HAB, Hischier R, Block P","year":2026,"venue":"Materials & Design","doi_or_url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264127526017156","finding":"First multi-life-cycle evaluation of regrown mycelium insulation panels (numbers not retrieved).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-porterfield-2025","title":"Critical investments in bioregenerative life support systems for bioastronautics and sustainable lunar exploration","authors":"Porterfield DM, Tulodziecki D, Wheeler R","year":2025,"venue":"npj Microgravity","doi_or_url":"10.1038/s41526-025-00518-4","finding":"NASA funding cuts and programme discontinuations (incl. BIO-Plex era) left capability gaps relative to China's Lunar Palace programme.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-liu-2021","title":"Review of research into bioregenerative life support system(s) which can support humans living in space","authors":"Liu H, Yao Z, Fu Y, Feng J","year":2021,"venue":"Life Sciences in Space Research 31:113-120","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.lssr.2021.09.003","finding":"Beihang review of BLSS history and design (82 citations); abstract not retrieved.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-honic-2024","title":"From Data Templates to Material Passports and Digital Product Passports","authors":"(Springer chapter, authors not retrieved)","year":2024,"venue":"Springer book chapter","doi_or_url":"10.1007/978-3-031-39675-5_5","finding":"Madaster, Concular and CB'23 produce passports, but lack of standardised templates and data tracing blocks adoption.","type":"review"}],"numbers":[{"id":"N01","label":"O2 consumed per person","value":0.895,"unit":"kg/day","basis":"reported","context":"BVAD Table 3-31 reference 82 kg crew member, RQ 0.86.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N02","label":"CO2 produced per person","value":1.085,"unit":"kg/day","basis":"reported","context":"Same table; 4 people = 4.34 kg/day to fix or vent.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N03","label":"Dry food consumed per person","value":0.8,"unit":"kg/day","basis":"reported","context":"12.8 MJ/day energy content.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N04","label":"Urine (water + solids) per person","value":"1.42 + 0.061","unit":"kg/day","basis":"reported","context":"Faeces 0.101 kg water + 0.032 kg solids; respiration and perspiration water 2.946 kg.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N05","label":"Nitrogen in urine","value":8.8,"unit":"g N/person/day","basis":"reported","context":"Assumed design value in Fumasoli et al. 2016 (\"assuming a nitrogen production of 8.8 g N/cap/d\"); 3.2 kg N/person/yr (calculated).","sources":["src-fumasoli-2016"]},{"id":"N06","label":"Crop area for a full BVAD diet","value":65.29,"unit":"m2/person","basis":"reported","context":"All-ELS-crops diet; salad-only diet 1.35 m2/person; salad + carbohydrate diet 19.5 m2/person.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N07","label":"Inedible biomass from a full crop diet","value":6.66,"unit":"kg fresh/person/day","basis":"reported","context":"50x the faecal mass: the real solid-waste problem of a food-growing site.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N08","label":"Fertiliser salts for a full crop diet","value":"90-100","unit":"kg/person/yr","basis":"reported","context":"BVAD citing Lunn 2017; >50% recoverable from inedible biomass.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N09","label":"Wheat area to supply one person's O2 (nominal rate)","value":16,"unit":"m2","basis":"calculated","context":"895 g / 56 g O2/m2/day; LMLSTP measured 11.2 m2 at high light for 15 days; BPC lifetime average (540 kg / 1200 d / 20 m2 = 22.5 g/m2/d) implies ~40 m2 including turnaround.","sources":["src-bvad-2022","src-barta-lmlstp","src-wheeler-1996"]},{"id":"N10","label":"Lettuce area to supply one person's O2","value":115,"unit":"m2","basis":"calculated","context":"895 / 7.78 g O2/m2/day: leafy greens cannot be an air system.","sources":["src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N11","label":"Limnospira PBR volume per person at max productivity","value":860,"unit":"L","basis":"calculated","context":"1.35 mmol/L/h x 32 g/mol x 24 h = 1.04 g O2/L/day; 895 / 1.04.","sources":["src-garcia-gragera-2022","src-bvad-2022"]},{"id":"N12","label":"Lunar Palace 365 material closure","value":98.2,"unit":"%","basis":"reported","context":"370 days, 8 volunteers in 2 groups; urine 99.7%, solid waste 67%.","sources":["src-fu-2021-biorxiv","src-fu-2025-actaastro"]},{"id":"N13","label":"BIOS-3 total closure","value":91,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","context":"2 crew, 63 m2 crops, 130 W/m2 PAR, ~5 months.","sources":["src-gitelson-1989"]},{"id":"N14","label":"CEEF crew food grown inside","value":"82-95","unit":"%","basis":"measured","context":"150 m2 crops for 2 people + 2 goats, 2005-2007 (about 75 m2 per person incl. goat feed, calculated).","sources":["src-nitta-2010"]},{"id":"N15","label":"Lunar Palace 1 urine N recovery / solid waste degradation","value":"20.5 / 41","unit":"%","basis":"measured","context":"105-day run, 2014; 55% food regenerated.","sources":["src-fu-2016-ast"]},{"id":"N16","label":"Biosphere 2 O2 decline","value":"21 -> 14","unit":"% O2 over 16 months","basis":"measured","context":"Pure O2 injected days 475-494; ~600 kmol CO2 to concrete over 15,800 m2.","sources":["src-severinghaus-1994","src-dempster-1999"]},{"id":"N17","label":"Biosphere 2 lung volume vs air volume","value":"43,000 / 140,000","unit":"m3","basis":"reported","context":"~30% expansion capacity at ~150 Pa; enabled ~10%/yr leak.","sources":["src-dempster-1999"]},{"id":"N18","label":"Biosphere 2 electric demand","value":"700 avg / 1500 peak","unit":"kW","basis":"reported","context":"For 8 people: ~2.1 MWh/person/day (calculated) - closure was bought with energy.","sources":["src-dempster-1999"]},{"id":"N19","label":"Urine distillation primary energy (Aurin route)","value":71,"unit":"W per capita","basis":"calculated","context":"Plus 13 W/cap nitrification; ~2.0 kWh/person/day primary (calculated). Basis: calculated by Fumasoli et al. from pilot operation at 640 mg N/L/d and 1,790 mg NH4-N/L influent, assuming 8.8 g N/cap/day (not a directly metered household value).","sources":["src-fumasoli-2016"]},{"id":"N20","label":"Zeolite overall urine N recovery","value":86,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","context":"97% transfer x 88% elution; salinity left behind.","sources":["src-beler-baykal-2011"]},{"id":"N21","label":"Struvite phosphate removal from urine","value":95,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","context":"Stirred tank with settling compartment.","sources":["src-wilsenach-2007"]},{"id":"N22","label":"Pharmaceutical uptake into lettuce from urine fertiliser","value":"0.00004-0.0002","unit":"% of applied","basis":"measured","context":"Worst-case 70-year intake up to 2.5% of a therapeutic dose.","sources":["src-rodriguez-2025"]},{"id":"N23","label":"BSF pilot conversion","value":"190 -> 79","unit":"kg food waste -> kg larvae","basis":"measured","context":"FCR 1.7-3.6 on dry matter; not a wet-to-wet yield.","sources":["src-gligorescu-2020"]},{"id":"N24","label":"Capital lost in five insect-farming failures 2025-2026","value":777,"unit":"million USD","basis":"reported","context":"Ynsect >$600M, Enorm ~$57M, Aspire ~$53M, AgroLoop ~$42M, Goterra ~$25M. Goterra moved from administration (Jun 2026) to liquidation (Jul 2026). Ynsect figure is a minimum (>$600M), so the total is a floor.","sources":["src-insectinstitute-777m","src-techcrunch-ynsect","src-smartcompany-goterra-2026"]},{"id":"N25","label":"Thermophilic hygienisation rule (in-vessel)","value":"55 C x 3 days","unit":"time-temperature","basis":"reported","context":"US 40 CFR 503 PFRP; windrow 15 days with 5 turnings.","sources":["src-cfr-503"]},{"id":"N26","label":"BPC condensate yield","value":3.9,"unit":"L/m2/day","basis":"calculated","context":"94,700 kg over ~1200 days on 20 m2: transpired water is the cleanest recycled water on site.","sources":["src-wheeler-1996"]},{"id":"N27","label":"Household digestate pH (Montana)","value":"5.3-6.1","unit":"pH","basis":"measured","context":"Final pH 5.3 in the custom prototype and 6.1 in the commercial unit after 12 weeks (pH rose over the run); acidic digestate in a cold-climate household setting.","sources":["src-ebel-2025"]},{"id":"N28","label":"Biochar yield effect","value":"+25 tropics / 0 temperate","unit":"% average","basis":"measured","context":"Meta-analysis; use biochar as C sink and N-loss cover in temperate sites.","sources":["src-jeffery-2017"]}],"failures":[{"what":"Biosphere 2 oxygen crash (1991-93)","why":"Organic-rich soils respired far more CO2 than plants could fix; fresh exposed concrete carbonated ~600 kmol CO2, hiding the signal; O2 fell to 14% and pure O2 had to be injected; the CaCO3 furnace meant to close the scrubber loop failed.","lesson_for_anyground":"Never share one atmosphere between people and a soil ecosystem; keep the farm air loop separate with a controlled transfer line (CEEF pattern), no exposed fresh cementitious surfaces inside sealed volumes, and an O2 floor alarm with automatic ventilation to outside air on Earth."},{"what":"Lunar Palace solid-waste bottleneck","why":"Even at 98.2% material closure, solid waste recovery was 67% (41% in the 105-day run); lignocellulose degrades slowly and microbially fragile.","lesson_for_anyground":"Do not promise solid closure; route inedible biomass to exports that have value (biochar, mycelium infill, compost) and count them as 'regulated exports', not losses."},{"what":"LMLSTP Phase III food closure","why":"Wheat supplied ~25% of O2 for 4 crew but grown food covered <5% of calories in 91 days.","lesson_for_anyground":"Food is the most area- and energy-hungry loop; ORIJO promises fresh greens, protein trims and nutrient recycling, not caloric autarky."},{"what":"Ynsect liquidation and the 2025-26 insect-farming collapse","why":"Giga-factories built before unit economics; insect meal priced above the feed it replaced; energy costs; Goterra's decentralised on-site model also failed.","lesson_for_anyground":"BSF is an internal waste service sized to the household (KAMADO-B); its value is avoided waste haulage and feed for on-site fish or hens, never a product revenue line."},{"what":"MELiSSA nitrite excursions","why":"Biomass removal in the packed-bed nitrifier caused nitrite up to 187 mg N/L; nitrite above ~40 mg N/L reached the PBR and inhibited photosynthesis; capacity limit reached at a 1,740 load.","lesson_for_anyground":"Any biological urine loop needs online NO2- sensing, an automatic bypass and load-limiting before downstream crops or algae."},{"what":"Household anaerobic digesters souring in cold climates","why":"Montana households saw digestate pH 5.3-6.1; user convenience and cold were the main complaints.","lesson_for_anyground":"Use AD only where it is warm or where IRORI waste heat holds 35 C; default to BSF + in-vessel compost."},{"what":"BIO-Plex and NASA CELSS discontinuation","why":"Programme cuts and discontinuations before integrated crewed testing; capability gap now acknowledged.","lesson_for_anyground":"Integrated loops die from funding gaps, not physics: ship each loop as a standalone product that pays for itself (water, compost, fertiliser) before integrating."},{"what":"BIOS-3 partial food closure","why":"Even at 91% total closure, meat and some foods were imported and Chlorella was not palatable as a staple.","lesson_for_anyground":"Closure targets must be per element and per product; diet acceptance limits closure as much as engineering."}],"interfaces":[{"with_layer":"energy","exchange":"kWh in (pumps, blowers, distillation 71+13 W/cap primary if Aurin route, BSF and compost heating 20-60 W, drying); heat in (IRORI hot water for AD/BSF); biogas and pyrolysis syngas heat out","design_rule":"Choose chemistry over heat for nitrogen at household scale (zeolite/struvite: watts) and reserve distillation for hotel/station scale where PV surplus exists; loop loads are deferrable and run on PV surplus."},{"with_layer":"water","exchange":"Urine water 1.42 L/person/day out of the WC; plant transpiration condensate (about 3.9 L/m2/day in BPC) back to the grey intake; distillate from urine concentration; sodium bleed to the holding tank","design_rule":"Count plant condensate as recovered water and keep urine out of the greywater organ; nutrient recirculation is bled on a Na set point."},{"with_layer":"grow","exchange":"Nutrients (nitrate/ammonium liquor, charged zeolite, struvite, frass, compost, biochar), CO2-rich exhaust air; inedible biomass and crop residue back","design_rule":"Size urine-N output against crop uptake: 4 people's 12.8 kg N/yr saturates tens of NFT racks, so plan outdoor beds or export; never dose urine products on edible crops without the safety gate."},{"with_layer":"build","exchange":"Material passports, reusable panels, mycelium infill grown from crop residue, biochar for substrates","design_rule":"Every panel and hinge carries a QR/RFID passport; no exposed fresh cement or lime render inside sealed grow volumes (Biosphere 2 carbonation)."},{"with_layer":"care","exchange":"Sanitation (UDD toilet), odour control, hygiene; optional urine health screening data","design_rule":"Guest-facing fixtures must be odour-free and familiar; hygiene failures are the fastest way to kill acceptance of the whole loop."},{"with_layer":"mind","exchange":"Sensor data (mass, EC, pH, NH4, NO2, NO3, Na, CO2, O2, temperature), mass-balance residuals, product release decisions","design_rule":"The controller closes the ledger daily per element; any residual beyond +/-10% or missing hygienisation log blocks edible-crop release automatically."},{"with_layer":"structure","exchange":"Airtight farm envelope, lung bladder volume, transfer line, holding tank space within KURA","design_rule":"A sealed grow module needs a variable-volume lung (Biosphere 2 used ~30% of air volume) or deliberate venting; on Earth prefer venting plus CO2 enrichment to full sealing."},{"with_layer":"loop","exchange":"Internal: zeolite regeneration eluate, frass recirculation, compost heat","design_rule":"Each stream has exactly one primary product and one fallback route (ornamentals, holding tank or offtake)."}],"autonomy_ladder":[{"level":"L0","description":"Flush toilet to sewer or septic, mixed bin to landfill; no measurement.","human_minutes_per_week":0,"enabling_tech":"Utility connection."},{"level":"L1","description":"Separated streams (UDD toilet, compost bin, BSF bin) manually emptied, turned and fed; paper log.","human_minutes_per_week":90,"enabling_tech":"Commercial UDD toilet, BSF kit with ramp, in-vessel composter."},{"level":"L2","description":"Sensors and load cells on every stream; app alerts for full, odour, temperature, pH; humans move material.","human_minutes_per_week":45,"enabling_tech":"Load cells, NDIR CO2, EC/pH probes, LoRa/Wi-Fi telemetry."},{"level":"L3","description":"Automated dosing and transfer: urine store to struvite/zeolite columns with timed regeneration; compost aeration and temperature log; BSF self-harvest; drier for buffering.","human_minutes_per_week":20,"enabling_tech":"Peristaltic dosing, solenoid valve manifolds, ion-selective NH4/NO2 sensors, PLC with hygienisation logs."},{"level":"L4","description":"Daily per-element mass-balance reconciliation; automatic product routing through the safety gate; cartridge swaps by the TSURU robot; remote lab panels quarterly.","human_minutes_per_week":10,"enabling_tech":"Digital ledger, rules engine, service robot handling sealed cartridges, courier lab sampling."},{"level":"L5","description":"Self-optimising loop: crop plan, CO2 transfer, nutrient dosing and exports scheduled against the ledger and PV forecast; humans only for exceptions and the twice-yearly service visit.","human_minutes_per_week":3,"enabling_tech":"Model-predictive control (MELiSSA-style compartment models), online pathogen proxies, regulatory acceptance of logged processes."}],"orijo_design":{"recommended_stack":[{"subsystem":"LOOP-S1 ledger","choice":"BVAD-anchored per-element ledger with load cells and probes on every JO-PORT stream","why":"Biosphere 2 showed closure is first an accounting tool; it is also the automation fault detector and the investor KPI."},{"subsystem":"LOOP-S2 yellow","choice":"Home: acidified/stored urine -> struvite (Mg) -> clinoptilolite column; Hotel/station: Aurin-type nitrification + distillation or offtake partner","why":"Chemistry route costs watts and survives intermittent occupancy; struvite + zeolite gave the cleanest product in de Boer 2018; biology pays only at steady 10s of people."},{"subsystem":"LOOP-S3 brown/green","choice":"Dry-and-hold buffer (Mill-class drier) -> BSF bin with ramp; faeces and BSF frass -> in-vessel thermophilic composter (55 C x 3 d logged); dry residue -> biochar or mycelium infill; AD only in warm sites","why":"Drying decouples waste arrival from larval appetite; compost rule is codified; AD sours in the cold."},{"subsystem":"LOOP-S4 air","choice":"Do not seal the house; seal only grow modules and feed them filtered living-room exhaust (CO2 enrichment) via a bladder lung; algae only as a polar/lunar trim","why":"On Earth the atmosphere is free buffer; full O2 closure needs 16-40 m2 wheat or ~860 L PBR per person."},{"subsystem":"LOOP-S6 gate","choice":"Rules engine: hygienisation log + quarterly panel + Na/NO2 online; default to ornamentals","why":"Regulators approved Aurin for a defined process; logged processes are the path to approval elsewhere."},{"subsystem":"LOOP-S7 build","choice":"Passport (QR + RFID) on every ORIJO panel; mycelium infill cassettes regrown from straw/residue at Shikinen renewal","why":"Panels are the reusable asset; infill is the carbon sink that consumes the site's hardest waste stream."}],"new_mechanisms_or_modules":[{"name":"TSUBO-Z (zeolite nitrogen battery cartridge)","what":"Sealed 20-25 kg clinoptilolite cartridges in the KAWAYA-U that capture NH4+/K+ from stored urine downstream of a struvite settler; full cartridges are either regenerated in place to liquid feed or swapped by TSURU and shipped/sold as slow-release soil amendment.","how_it_works":"Urine is stored until hydrolysed (alkaline), MgCl2 is dosed in a 20 L settler to precipitate struvite (P ~95% removed), the supernatant passes down-flow through two zeolite cartridges in series; an inline NH4+ ISE after cartridge 1 triggers lead-lag swap at breakthrough; regeneration with KCl yields a clean NH4/K eluate for HATA, salt-free per Beler-Baykal 2011; mass and N are logged into the ledger.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"One UDD toilet, 120 L urine store, 20 L struvite settler with dosing pump, 2 x 25 kg clinoptilolite columns, NH4+ and EC probes, load cells, controller; serve 4 people.","bom_usd":"3,000-6,000 (estimate)","test":"12 months: N and P mass balance, breakthrough curves, eluate vs Hoagland on lettuce (3 cycles), pharmaceutical panel on eluate and lettuce, odour log.","pass":">=75% of urine N and >=85% of urine P captured into products; lettuce yield >=85% of control; no pharmaceutical above Rodriguez 2025 worst-case uptake; <=15 human min/week.","kill":"Overall N capture <50% or cartridge mass >3x calculated; then fall back to struvite-only plus offtake of stored urine to a VUNA/Aurin plant."}},{"name":"KAMADO-2 (dry-buffer larvae + hot box)","what":"Two-stage green loop: an overnight drier buffers kitchen scraps, a BSF tray tower with self-harvest ramp converts them, and a 200 L in-vessel composter hygienises frass and faeces with a logged 55 C x 3 day cycle.","how_it_works":"Drier output is rehydrated on demand to keep larval density and feed rate optimal regardless of occupancy (critical for hotels); prepupae climb the ramp into a hopper weighed by a load cell; frass recirculation (up to 40% inclusion) raises larval yield per tonne of food waste in the diet from 207 to 403 kg dry/t, although overall bioconversion efficiency and material reduction fall (Lopes 2024); composter temperature probes write the hygienisation certificate.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"Countertop drier, 3-tray BSF tower with ramp and hopper load cell, 200 L insulated rotating composter with aeration fan and 3 probes.","bom_usd":"2,500-5,000 (estimate)","test":"12 months at a 4-person home and a 6-key hotel pilot; waste in vs larvae, frass, compost out; odour and fly escape; hygienisation logs; E. coli on compost.","pass":">=60% wet mass reduction of food waste; >=95% of compost batches certified 55 C x 3 d; zero escape complaints; <=20 human min/week.","kill":"Colony crashes more than twice per year or fly escape incidents; fall back to drier + composter only."}},{"name":"FUIGO lung (bellows CO2 transfer)","what":"A TPU bellows bladder (5-10% of grow-zone volume) between the living volume and a sealed YOSHI-6G or HATA grow zone, moving CO2-rich exhaust through HEPA + activated carbon into the crop and returning O2-enriched air, with plant CO2 drawdown used as a crop-health sensor.","how_it_works":"Like Biosphere 2's lungs but small: the bladder absorbs thermal and pressure swings so the grow zone stays sealed; a fan pulls living-room air at a rate set to hold ~800-1,000 ppm in the grow zone; the controller computes canopy net photosynthesis from CO2 make-up (as BPC and SAM do) and flags stressed crops; an O2 floor/ceiling interlock vents to outside.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"One sealed grow cassette with bladder, filter line, CO2/O2/RH sensors, controller; paired with a 2-person living module.","bom_usd":"4,000-8,000 (estimate)","test":"6-12 months: CO2 uptake vs biomass harvested; VOC/bioaerosol transfer; humidity budget; human-room CO2.","pass":"Canopy carbon estimate within +/-15% of harvested dry biomass carbon; living-room CO2 lowered by >=150 ppm at night-to-day transfer; no bioaerosol rise.","kill":"Mould or VOC transfer into the living room, or humidity forcing >200 W extra dehumidification; then use bottled/PV-electrolysis-free CO2 enrichment only."}},{"name":"WARA-ITA (straw-mycelium infill cassette)","what":"Replaceable insulation cassettes for ORIJO panels grown from site straw and crop residue with mycelium, swapped at Shikinen renewal; spent cassettes are composted or charred.","how_it_works":"Chopped (<5 mm) and pre-compressed residue is inoculated with a white-rot fungus in a reusable cassette mould, grown, heat-killed in the drier, and slid into panel bays; each cassette carries a passport with substrate, date and moisture history.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"10 cassettes (one panel bay set), mould, growth tent, drier, moisture sensors in a test panel.","bom_usd":"1,500-3,000 (estimate)","test":"Thermal conductivity (guarded hot plate, external lab), fire reaction (external lab), 12 months in-panel moisture and mould inspection.","pass":"Thermal conductivity within 25% of mineral wool equivalent at installed density; no visible mould growth after 12 months; passes local fire class for concealed infill.","kill":"Fire class or moisture failure; fall back to biochar export for residue."}}],"sizing_reference":{"home_4p":{"formula":"flow = N_people x BVAD per-person value; N_urine = N x 8.8 g x 365; zeolite_kg_week = N x 8.8 x 7 / q (q = 10-20 mg N/g)","inputs":{"N":4,"q_mg_N_per_g":"10-20 (v3 assumption)","food_waste_kg_day":"1-2 (v3 target)"},"O2_kg_day":3.58,"CO2_kg_day":4.34,"urine_L_day":5.9,"faeces_wet_kg_day":0.53,"urine_N_kg_yr":12.8,"urine_N_recoverable_by_zeolite_kg_yr":11,"zeolite_throughput_kg_week":"12-25","fertiliser_need_full_diet_kg_salt_yr":"360-400 (if all food grown; not targeted)","wheat_area_for_full_O2_m2":"64 (nominal) to 160 (BPC average)","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-bvad-2022","src-fumasoli-2016","src-beler-baykal-2011","src-wheeler-1996","src-anyground-v3"]},"hotel_6key":{"formula":"person-equivalents P = keys x 2 guests x occupancy; flows = P x BVAD values","inputs":{"keys":6,"guests_per_key":2,"occupancy_assumed":0.65},"person_equivalents":7.8,"urine_L_day":11.6,"urine_N_kg_yr":25.1,"CO2_kg_day":8.5,"nitrification_distillation_primary_W":"655 (if Aurin route: 7.8 x 84 W)","recommendation":"Waterless urinals + UDD WCs; TSUBO-Z for P and N, or monthly offtake of stored urine to a regional Aurin-type plant; KAMADO-2 with drier buffer for occupancy swings.","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-bvad-2022","src-fumasoli-2016","src-time-aurin-2026"]},"farm_module":{"formula":"racks_fed_per_person = 3.2 kg N/yr / rack uptake (0.25-0.5 kg N/yr per HATA-4 rack, v3 calc); residue = edible x (1/HI - 1)","inputs":{"rack_N_uptake_kg_yr":"0.25-0.5 (v3 calculated)","BVAD_full_diet_area_m2_per_person":65.29},"racks_saturated_by_one_persons_urine_N":"6-13","inedible_biomass_full_diet_kg_fresh_day_per_person":6.66,"condensate_L_m2_day_BPC":3.9,"note":"One person's urine N can fertilise 6-13 HATA-4 racks; a household therefore exports N unless it has outdoor beds. Residue, not excreta, dominates solids once real crops are grown.","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-anyground-v3","src-bvad-2022","src-wheeler-1996","src-fumasoli-2016"]}}},"open_problems":["No certified, automated household-scale urine-to-fertiliser appliance exists; Aurin is building-scale and zeolite routes lack regulatory approval outside Switzerland's nitrified-urine precedent.","Lignocellulose (inedible biomass) recovery stalls at ~41-67% even in the best analogue; no compact, fast, safe household process closes it.","Online, low-cost pathogen and pharmaceutical sensing does not exist; release decisions rely on time-temperature proxies and quarterly lab panels.","Sodium and boron accumulation in recirculating nutrient loops fed by human-derived products; the bleed stream needs a home.","Energy cost of electric-light crops: closure on Earth competes with simply venting CO2; a defensible metric is kg imports avoided per kWh, not % closure.","BSF regulation: feed law in the EU and elsewhere restricts substrates for insects destined for food animals; on-site use needs jurisdiction-specific review (not sourced in this sweep).","Mycelium infill: numeric thermal conductivity, fire class and moisture durability at panel scale were not retrieved in this sweep and must be tested.","Material passports depend on BIM data quality; no standard links a passport to a folding hinge's cycle count and wear state.","BIOS-3 and Biosphere 2 food-closure percentages and power figures in this dossier rely partly on secondary sources (Wikipedia, DOE review); the 1997 BioScience review was paywalled."],"sources":[{"id":"src-bvad-2022","title":"Ewert, Chen, Powell (eds.) - Life Support Baseline Values and Assumptions Document, NASA/TP-2015-218570/REV2 (Feb 2022), Tables 3-31, 4-91, 4-92 and section 4.14","url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20210024855/downloads/BVAD_2.15.22-final.pdf","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-fu-2021-biorxiv","title":"Fu Y-M et al. - Establishment of a closed artificial ecosystem to ensure human long-term survival on the moon (Lunar Palace 365), bioRxiv 2021","url":"https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.01.12.426282","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-fu-2025-actaastro","title":"Fu Y, Liu H et al. - A case for supporting human long-term survival on the Moon: 'Lunar Palace 365' mission, Acta Astronautica 2025 (abstract via Google Scholar snippet; full text 403)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.12.002","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-fu-2016-ast","title":"Fu Y et al. - How to Establish a Bioregenerative Life Support System for Long-Term Crewed Missions to the Moon or Mars, Astrobiology 16:925-936 (2016), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2016.1477","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-wiki-yuegong","title":"Wikipedia - Yuegong-1 (secondary; facility area, crop list, mission dates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuegong-1","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-gitelson-1989","title":"Gitelson II, Terskov IA, Kovrov BG, Lisovskii GM et al. - Long-term experiments on man's stay in biological life-support system, Adv. Space Res. 9(8):65-71 (1989), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(89)90030-6","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-salisbury-1997","title":"Salisbury FB, Gitelson JI, Lisovsky GM - Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support, BioScience 47(9):575-585 (1997) (paywalled; metadata only)","url":"https://doi.org/10.2307/1313164","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-wiki-bios3","title":"Wikipedia - BIOS-3 (secondary; several figures tagged citation needed)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS-3","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-dempster-1999","title":"Dempster WF - Biosphere 2 engineering design, Ecological Engineering 13:31-42 (1999)","url":"https://ecotechnics.edu/wp-content/uploads/backup/2011/08/Ecol-Eng-1999-Bio-2-Engineering-Design-Dempster.pdf","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-severinghaus-1994","title":"Severinghaus JP, Broecker WS, Dempster WF, MacCallum T et al. - Oxygen loss in Biosphere 2, Eos 75 (1994), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1029/94EO00285","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-doe-berac-2003","title":"US DOE BERAC - An evaluation of the Biosphere 2 Center as a national scientific user facility (March 2003)","url":"https://science.osti.gov/-/media/ber/berac/pdf/Biosphere_2.pdf","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-nitta-2010","title":"CEEF: Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (Institute for Environmental Sciences, Aomori), 2010 overview (Tako Y, Arai R, Tsuga S et al.), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?search=CEEF%20CLOSED%20ECOLOGY%20EXPERIMENT%20FACILITIES","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-tako-2008","title":"Tako Y et al. - One-week habitation of two humans in an airtight facility with two goats and 23 crops, Adv. Space Res. (2008) (metadata only)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.023","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-wheeler-1996","title":"Wheeler RM, Mackowiak CL, Stutte GW, Sager JC et al. - NASA's Biomass Production Chamber: a testbed for bioregenerative life support studies, Adv. Space Res. 18(4-5):215-224 (1996), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(95)00880-N","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-barta-lmlstp","title":"Barta D, Henninger D, Edeen M, Lewis J - Closure of Regenerative Life Support Systems: Results of the Lunar-Mars Life Support Test Project (NTRS 20080026014)","url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20080026014","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-villarreal-bioplex","title":"Villarreal JD, Tri TO - Bioregenerative Planetary Life Support Systems Test Complex (BIO-Plex): Progress to Date, SAE ICES 2001 (snippet only)","url":"https://saemobilus.sae.org/papers/bioregenerative-planetary-life-support-systems","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-porterfield-2025","title":"Porterfield DM, Tulodziecki D, Wheeler R - Critical investments in bioregenerative life support systems for bioastronautics and sustainable lunar exploration, npj Microgravity (2025), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-025-00518-4","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-garcia-gragera-2021","title":"Garcia-Gragera D, Arnau C, Peiro E et al. - Integration of Nitrifying, Photosynthetic and Animal Compartments at the MELiSSA Pilot Plant, Front. Astron. Space Sci. 8:750616 (2021)","url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/astronomy-and-space-sciences/articles/10.3389/fspas.2021.750616/full","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-garcia-gragera-2022","title":"Garcia-Gragera D, Peiro E, Arnau C, Cornet JF, Dussap CG, Godia F - Dynamics of long-term continuous culture of Limnospira indica in an air-lift photobioreactor, Microb. Biotechnol. 15(3):931-948 (2022), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13882","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-esa-melissa-2019","title":"ESA - A decade-long quest to build an ecosystem in a room (MELiSSA Pilot Plant, 5 April 2019)","url":"https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/A_decade-long_quest_to_build_an_ecosystem_in_a_room","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-arnau-2025","title":"Arnau C, Peiro E, Godia F - MELiSSA Pilot Plant: Progressing in the MELiSSA Loop Closure, ICES-2025 (Elicit abstract)","url":"https://doi.org/10.32865/2346/102745","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-fumasoli-2016","title":"Fumasoli A, Etter B, Sterkele B, Morgenroth E, Udert KM - Operating a pilot-scale nitrification/distillation plant for complete nutrient recovery from urine, Water Sci. Technol. 73(1):215-222 (2016), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2015.485","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-udert-2012","title":"Udert KM, Waechter M - Complete nutrient recovery from source-separated urine by nitrification and distillation, Water Research (2012) (metadata only)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.020","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-time-aurin-2026","title":"TIME Best Inventions 2026 - VunaNexus Aurin","url":"https://time.com/collection/best-inventions/2026/vunanexus-aurin/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-popsci-aurin-2025","title":"Popular Science - Swiss startup turns urine into plant fertilizer (8 Dec 2025)","url":"https://www.popsci.com/science/urine-plant-fertilizer/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-krause-2021","title":"Krause A, Haefner F, Augustin F, Udert KM - Qualitative risk analysis for contents of dry toilets used to produce novel recycling fertilizers, Circular Economy and Sustainability (2021) (Scholar snippet: nitrified urine fertiliser approved in Switzerland in 2018)","url":"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43615-021-00068-3","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-schroeder-2026","title":"Schroeder C, Haefner F, Krause A et al. - Recycling fertilizers from resource-oriented sanitation systems: product-level characterization and meta-analysis of agronomic performance, Front. Environ. Sci. (2026), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2026.1843173","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-wilsenach-2007","title":"Wilsenach JA, Schuurbiers CAH, van Loosdrecht MCM - Phosphate and potassium recovery from source separated urine through struvite precipitation, Water Research 41(2):458-466 (2007), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.10.014","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-etter-2011","title":"Etter B, Tilley E, Khadka R, Udert KM - Low-cost struvite production using source-separated urine in Nepal, Water Research (2011) (metadata only)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.10.007","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-krahenbuhl-2016","title":"Kraehenbuehl M, Etter B, Udert KM - Pretreated magnesite as a source of low-cost magnesium for producing struvite from urine in Nepal, Sci. Total Environ. 542:1155-1161 (2016), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.060","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-deboer-2018","title":"de Boer MA, Hammerton M, Slootweg JC - Uptake of pharmaceuticals by sorbent-amended struvite fertilisers recovered from human urine and their bioaccumulation in tomato fruit, Water Research (2018), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.017","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-beler-baykal-2011","title":"Beler-Baykal B, Allar AD, Bayram S - Nitrogen recovery from source-separated human urine using clinoptilolite and preliminary results of its use as fertilizer, Water Sci. Technol. (2011), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.324","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-rodriguez-2025","title":"Rodriguez EE, Dickman RA, Kennedy BC, Aga DS - Comparative Exposure Assessment of Crops Grown by Urine-Derived Fertilizer and Crops Irrigated with Reclaimed Water, Environ. Sci. Technol. (2025), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c12633","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-gligorescu-2020","title":"Gligorescu A, Fischer CH, Larsen P, Noergaard J et al. - Production and Optimization of Hermetia illucens Larvae Reared on Food Waste and Utilized as Feed Ingredient, Sustainability 12:9864 (2020), abstract via Semantic Scholar","url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/su12239864","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-lopes-2024","title":"Lopes IG, Wiklicky V, Vinneras B, Yong JWH et al. - Recirculating frass from food waste bioconversion using black soldier fly larvae, J. Environ. Manage. (2024), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121869","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-kolobaric-2026","title":"Kolobaric A, Hoffman LC, Chapman J - Plastics and associated chemical contaminants in black soldier fly larvae food waste bioconversion, Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2026), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2026.2730190","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-insectinstitute-777m","title":"Insect Institute - $777 million invested in five failed insect farming companies: what happened","url":"https://www.insectinstitute.org/news/777-million-invested-five-failed-insect-farming-companies-what-happened","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-techcrunch-ynsect","title":"TechCrunch - How reality crushed Ynsect, the French startup that had raised over $600M for insect farming (26 Dec 2025)","url":"https://techcrunch.com/2025/12/26/how-reality-crushed-ynsect-the-french-startup-that-had-raised-over-600m-for-insect-farming/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-rajendran-2012","title":"Rajendran K, Aslanzadeh S, Taherzadeh MJ - Household Biogas Digesters - A Review, Energies 5 (2012), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/en5082911","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-ebel-2025","title":"Ebel RH, Eberly JO, Grimberg BI, Seipel TF et al. - Household-scale anaerobic digestion of food waste - a community case study from Bozeman, Montana, Front. Sustain. Food Syst. (2025), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1561457","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-ctech-homebiogas-2025","title":"CTech (Calcalist) - Israel's HomeBiogas steps into the defense sector via new contract with U.S. Air Force (27 May 2025)","url":"https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/hkv2mg5wll","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-ticker-homebiogas-2025","title":"Ticker News - HomeBiogas transforms waste into clean energy in 30,000 homes (10 Dec 2025) (headline only)","url":"https://tickernews.co/homebiogas-transforms-waste-into-clean-energy-globally/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-yt-homebiogas","title":"YouTube - A Quick Lesson: How HomeBiogas Works (HomeBiogas channel)","url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FjRkk2ade0","type":"video","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-mill-site","title":"Mill Industries - Mill Food Recycler product page","url":"https://mill.com/","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-techcrunch-mill-2025","title":"TechCrunch - Whole Foods to install smart food waste bins from Mill starting in 2027 (16 Dec 2025) (headline only)","url":"https://techcrunch.com/2025/12/16/whole-foods-to-install-smart-food-waste-bins-f","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-cfr-503","title":"40 CFR Part 503 Appendix B - Pathogen treatment processes (PFRP composting time-temperature)","url":"https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/40/appendix-B_to_part_503","type":"standard","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-jeffery-2017","title":"Jeffery S et al. - Biochar boosts tropical but not temperate crop yields, Environ. Res. Lett. (2017), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa67bd","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-elsacker-2019","title":"Elsacker E, Vandelook S, Brancart J, Peeters E et al. - Mechanical, physical and chemical characterisation of mycelium-based composites with different types of lignocellulosic substrates, PLoS ONE 14:e0213954 (2019), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213954","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-bitting-2026","title":"Bitting S, Woesten HAB, Hischier R, Block P - Regrowing mycelium acoustic and insulation panels: biofabrication, performance and environmental impact, Materials & Design (2026) (Scholar snippet)","url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264127526017156","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-madaster-site","title":"Madaster - platform home page (regional sites, passports, circularity KPIs)","url":"https://madaster.com/","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-madaster-rollout-2022","title":"Madaster - The international roll-out of Madaster (29 Sep 2022) (Google snippet: over 16 million m2 registered)","url":"https://madaster.com/","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-honic-2024","title":"From Data Templates to Material Passports and Digital Product Passports (Springer, 2024), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39675-5_5","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-qr-passport-2022","title":"Using engraved QR codes to connect building components to materials passports for circular construction, EC3 2022 (Elicit abstract)","url":"https://doi.org/10.35490/ec3.2022.226","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-watersa-2015","title":"Technologies for the treatment of source-separated urine in the eThekwini Municipality, Water SA 41(2) (2015) (Elicit metadata/abstract)","url":"https://doi.org/10.4314/WSA.V41I2.06","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-anyground-v3","title":"Anyground v3 concept.json (mechanism M06 MOTTAINAI loop; modules KAWAYA-U, KAMADO-B, HATA-4, UKI-P)","url":"research/v3/concept.json","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-yt-melissa","title":"YouTube - MELiSSA Pilot Plant (UAB) videos incl. 'Interview with Francesc Godia, director of the MELiSSA pilot plant'","url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EskJA0ka5CQ","type":"video","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-yt-lp365","title":"YouTube - China's 'Lunar Palace' breaks record after 365+5 days (CGTN/New China TV, 2018)","url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Khx0pEyquvQ","type":"video","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-yt-bsf","title":"YouTube - BSF pupae self-harvesting into a bucket (ramp self-harvest demo)","url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7YGMIjs813c","type":"video","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-yt-b2","title":"YouTube - Biosphere 2 oxygen explainers (2025-2026 cluster, e.g. 'Why Biosphere 2's Oxygen Fell From 21% to 14%')","url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XblLquLhg-Q","type":"video","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-pat-ep4509470","title":"EP4509470A1 - Method and system for wastewater treatment and nutrient recovery (2025; biofilm nitrification container + optional urine store and distiller)","url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/EP4509470A1/en","type":"patent","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-pat-ep3548439","title":"EP3548439A1 - Method and apparatus for the nitrification of high-strength aqueous ammonia solutions (2019; two-step AOB/NOB oxidation)","url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/EP3548439A1/en","type":"patent","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-pat-es3034813","title":"ES3034813T3 - Intelligent device for composting organic waste by using larvae of saprophagous insects (2025)","url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/ES3034813T3/en","type":"patent","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-pat-us8464970","title":"US8464970B2 - Under-sink waste processing appliance (separator + dryer for organic pulp, 2013)","url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/US8464970B2/en","type":"patent","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-pat-us20180360008","title":"US20180360008A1 - System and method for propagating dipteran larvae (2018)","url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/US20180360008A1/en","type":"patent","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-sam-b2-2026","title":"A Study of Super-Dwarf Pea for Bioregenerative Life Support at the Space Analog for the Moon and Mars (Biosphere 2 Test Module, 2026), abstract via OpenAlex","url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?search=Super-Dwarf%20Pea%20Bioregenerative%20Life%20Support%20Space%20Analog%20Moon%20Mars","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-liao-2025","title":"Liao B, Feng T et al. - Simulated microgravity confines and fragments the straw-based lignocellulose degrading microbial community (inoculum from Lunar Palace 365), Microbiol. Spectr. (2025), PubMed abstract","url":"https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02466-24","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-esa-hq-aurin","title":"TIME 2026 report on ~70 urine-diverting toilets at ESA Paris HQ (2023) feeding a basement Aurin plant","url":"https://time.com/collection/best-inventions/2026/vunanexus-aurin/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-eawag-aurin","title":"Eawag - Aurin - Duenger aus Urin (project page; Google snippet: provisional approval since Feb 2016, approved by the Swiss Federal Office for Agriculture for edible plants since 2018)","url":"https://www.eawag.ch/","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false,"note":"Exact Eawag page URL was a Google redirect; snippet text only, retrieved via scripts/v4/search.py loop serp."},{"id":"src-smartcompany-goterra-2026","title":"SmartCompany - Goterra enters liquidation after hopes of sale fall through (10 Jul 2026)","url":"https://www.smartcompany.com.au/startupsmart/goterra-enters-liquidation-after-hopes-of-sale-fall-through/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true}],"method_note":"Searches: 16 Elicit queries (each returned 10 papers) and 41 SerpApi budget units (google_scholar 14, google_patents 7, google_news 6, youtube 5 logged plus 4 failed HTTP 400 calls that consumed budget, google 5 incl. one mistyped query), all logged in research/v4/sweep/raw-loop.jsonl. Primary reading on 2026-10-29 via WebFetch (bioRxiv, Frontiers, NASA BVAD PDF, Dempster 1999 PDF, DOE BERAC PDF, ESA, TIME, PopSci, TechCrunch, Insect Institute, CTech, Mill, Madaster, Wikipedia, eCFR/Cornell LII, NTRS API) and abstracts via PubMed E-utilities, OpenAlex and Semantic Scholar APIs. ScienceDirect, Springer, Nature, OUP and IWA blocked direct fetches; numbers from those rely on indexed abstracts and are flagged read_primary=false when only snippets were seen. 'calculated' values state their formula in context. Prices of new modules are estimates, not quotes.","verification":{"date":"2026-10-29","method":"Adversarial pass: primary abstracts via Europe PMC / OpenAlex REST APIs, full-text PDFs (BVAD Rev2, Dempster 1999, DOE BERAC 2003) parsed locally, WebFetch on company/news pages, 3 serp calls via scripts/v4/search.py (loop layer budget 44/48 after this pass).","checked":34,"checked_items":["N01-N04 BVAD Table 3-31 metabolic values","N06-N08 BVAD Table 4-91/4-92 and section 4.14 crop area, inedible biomass (fresh weight), fertiliser salts","N09/N10 wheat and lettuce O2 area calculations","N11 Limnospira 1.35 mmol/L/h and 860 L calculation","N12 Lunar Palace 365 closure 98.2%, urine 99.7%, solids 67%","N13 BIOS-3 91% closure, 63 m2, 130 W/m2","N14 CEEF 82-95% food, 79-100% goat feed","N15 Lunar Palace 1 20.5% N / 41% solids / 55% food","N16 Biosphere 2 O2 21->14% and concrete CO2","N17 Biosphere 2 lungs 43,000/140,000 m3, 150 Pa, ~10%/yr leak","N18 Biosphere 2 700/1500 kW","N19 Aurin-route 71+13 W/cap","N20 clinoptilolite 97/88/86%","N21 struvite 95% P","N22 Rodriguez 2025 pharmaceutical uptake","N23 Gligorescu 190->79 kg, FCR 1.7-3.6","N24 $777M insect failures (5 companies, types, dates)","N25 40 CFR 503 PFRP","N26 BPC condensate and lifetime outputs","N27 Ebel 2025 digestate pH","N28 Jeffery 2017 biochar","P-LMLSTP 11.2 m2 / 25% O2 / <5% calories / 10 recycles","P-MELISSA 276 d, ~110 d, 18,000 ppm CO2","P-AURIN facts","P-GOTERRA status","P-YNSECT figures","P-HOMEBIOGAS USAF/100+ countries/900 schools","P-MILL claims and Whole Foods 2027","P-B2 $150M cost","P-LP365 public opening","PA-deboer-2018 and PA-lopes-2024 findings","P-ARTEMISS Dec 2017","Struvite maturity/TRL","Sizing formulas (home_4p, hotel_6key, farm_module)"],"confirmed":23,"corrected":[{"item":"N19 urine distillation energy 71 W/cap","was":"basis measured","now":"basis calculated (pilot-derived, assumes 8.8 g N/cap/d)","source":"src-fumasoli-2016"},{"item":"N05 urine N 8.8 g/person/day","was":"'Design value used by Eawag'","now":"labelled explicitly as an assumption in the paper, not a measurement","source":"src-fumasoli-2016"},{"item":"Aurin 8,000 L/day","was":"target by mid-2027, CEO statement","now":"company claim with conflicting tense (current per PopSci 2025, target per TIME 2026)","source":"src-popsci-aurin-2025; src-time-aurin-2026"},{"item":"P-AURIN authorisation","was":"'Authorised in Switzerland 2018' (no source attached for the date)","now":"provisional 2016, edible crops 2018; Eawag source added","source":"src-eawag-aurin"},{"item":"P-GOTERRA status","was":"voluntary administration June 2026","now":"liquidation July 2026 (after administration in June)","source":"src-smartcompany-goterra-2026"},{"item":"Struvite precipitation (from urine) maturity/TRL","was":"COMMERCIAL / TRL 8","now":"PILOT / TRL 7","source":"src-etter-2011; src-krahenbuhl-2016; src-wilsenach-2007"},{"item":"N27 / P-BOZEMAN-AD digestate pH","was":"'soured to pH 5.3-6.1'","now":"final pH 5.3 (custom) vs 6.1 (commercial); abstract reports pH increasing over time, so 'souring' framing softened","source":"src-ebel-2025"},{"item":"PA-nitta-2010 authors","was":"'IES CEEF team (authors not retrieved)'; id implies Nitta","now":"Tako Y, Arai R, Tsuga S et al. (per OpenAlex record); id kept for referential integrity","source":"src-nitta-2010"},{"item":"Biosphere 2 concrete CO2 uptake 600 kmol","was":"basis measured","now":"basis reported (order-of-magnitude estimate)","source":"src-dempster-1999"},{"item":"KAMADO-2 frass recirculation claim","was":"'20-40% raises yield per tonne'","now":"yield per tonne of food-waste component rises 207->403 kg dry/t at 40% inclusion, but bioconversion efficiency and mass reduction fall","source":"src-lopes-2024"}],"removed":[{"item":"P-LP365 'facility opened to public 2025'","reason":"No primary or news source found (serp returned only 2017 coverage); none of the cited sources states it."}],"unverifiable":[{"item":"Madaster 'over 16 million m2 registered' (2022)","reason":"Google snippet only; primary page not read. Kept as reported/company statement."},{"item":"MELiSSA PBR O2 vs 3-rat demand (1.5-2.1 vs 1.44-2.1 g O2/h)","reason":"Not located in the portion of Garcia-Gragera 2021 read in this pass (first 100k characters). Kept, not re-verified."},{"item":"BIOS-3 'meat imported', '1972-1984' dates","reason":"Primary (Salisbury 1997) paywalled; Gitelson 1989 abstract confirms only 315 m3, 63 m2, 130 W/m2 PAR, 91% closure, 5 months."},{"item":"HomeBiogas '30,000 homes'","reason":"Headline-only source (Ticker News); not read."},{"item":"BIO-Plex cancellation date","reason":"Already labelled unconfirmed in file; no primary found."}],"internal_consistency":"All source ids referenced in the file exist in sources and every source is used. Sizing recomputed: 4p home O2 3.58 kg/d, CO2 4.34, urine 5.92 L/d, faeces 0.53, urine N 12.85 kg/yr, zeolite-recoverable 11.05, zeolite 12.3-24.6 kg/week, wheat 64-159 m2; hotel 7.8 PE, urine 11.55 L/d, N 25.05 kg/yr, CO2 8.46, 655 W; farm 6.4-12.8 racks - all match the file within rounding.","verdict":"Substantially sound. No fabricated sources or DOIs found; every load-bearing BVAD, Biosphere 2, BIOS-3, CEEF, Lunar Palace, NASA BPC/LMLSTP, MELiSSA and urine-chemistry number matched its primary source with the right unit. Main fixes: Goterra is now in liquidation (Jul 2026), not just administration; Aurin 8,000 L/day is a claim with conflicting tense; urine-struvite downgraded to PILOT/TRL 7; Fumasoli energy figures are calculated, not metered; unsourced 'Lunar Palace opened to public 2025' removed; CEEF authors corrected."},"certification":[{"id":"C-L1","regime":"Swiss fertiliser authorisation of Aurin (urine-derived)","jurisdiction":"Switzerland","status":"provisional 2016; edible crops 2018","applies_to":"Nitrified, distilled urine fertiliser","requirement":"Product authorisation for a defined process","implication_for_orijo":"Only known regulatory precedent; ORIJO exports N as a product only where such approval exists, otherwise to ornamentals/biomass.","sources":["src-eawag-aurin","src-popsci-aurin-2025"]}],"revision_log":[{"date":"2026-10-29","by":"gaps-2026-10-29","change":"Added certification paths, new sources/numbers/papers/projects from the completeness-critic pass; see research/v4/gaps-log.md"}]}