{"key":"energy","title":"Energy autonomy layer","kanji":"力","one_line":"Fold-out PV, heat-first storage and a DC spine whose voltage itself enforces survival priorities.","thesis":"A fully automated habitat energy layer is a PV-first DC microgrid that banks most surplus as heat, keeps a small cold-tolerant electrochemical floor for life safety, and lets forecast-driven control move deferrable loads (farm lighting, hot water, laundry) into sun hours. The non-obvious insight is that food, not people, dominates the load: one LED farm cassette (14-19 kWh/day) out-consumes a whole efficient 4-person home, and the vertical-farm insolvencies (Plenty Chapter 11, Bowery shutdown, Jones Food administration) show that electric-light food fails when its kWh are priced like storage. Shifting the crop photoperiod to PV hours, storing heat in water and sand at a fraction of battery cost, and encoding the priority ladder in bus voltage (so it survives controller failure) are all implementable with today's commodity hardware. Seasonal storage remains the honest gap: no home-scale technology approaches the ~$20/kWh threshold, so high-latitude sites need oversized PV, thermal mass and a declared backup.","subsystems":[{"id":"ENERGY-S1","name":"Generation (fold-out PV first, site bonuses second)","function":"Convert on-site flux (sun, wind, water, heat) into DC on the habitat bus with the lowest kg and crew-minutes per kWh.","how_it_works":"Crystalline-silicon PV converts photons above the 1.12 eV bandgap into electron-hole pairs; MPPT converters hold each string at its maximum-power voltage and feed the DC bus directly. Bifacial cells also collect ground-reflected light on the rear, so a vertical east-west fence peaks in morning and evening and sheds snow, flattening the daily curve the battery must bridge. Fold-out arrays (Miura/flasher geometries in space, rail or hinge racks in containers) trade a small packing-loss for deploy times of hours. Small wind and micro-hydro produce at night and in winter but are steeply site-specific (power scales with v^3 and head x flow), so they are measured-site bonuses, not baseline. On the Moon the same bus accepts a fission or regenerative-fuel-cell source.","options":[{"name":"Fold-out rigid PV wings / container arrays","principle":"Rigid c-Si modules on hinged or rail racks that unfold from a transport envelope","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Container PV products (40-160 kWp per box) are sold and deployed; only the ORIJO Miura integration is new.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Mobile PV container portfolio range (HighJoule; only HJFoldSolar is described as foldable)","value":"40-160","unit":"kWp per container","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-mobilesolarcontainer"]},{"label":"Largest portable Solarcontainer shown operating","value":"140","unit":"kWp","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-yt-solarcontainer"]},{"label":"ORIJO MIURA-W wing (v3)","value":"4.5","unit":"kWp per 26.5 m2 wing","basis":"target","sources":["src-v3-concept"]}],"best_for":["desert","steppe","coast","rooftop","mountain"],"limits":"Wind loading and hinge fatigue; packing loss reduces kWp per m2; snow and dust need cleaning or tilt."},{"name":"Vertical bifacial E-W fence (BYOBU-PV)","principle":"Bifacial modules on vertical posts, faces east and west; doubles as windbreak and snow fence","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Next2Sun-class parks of MW scale operate in Germany/Austria; Belgian field trials measured crop LER.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Annual yield vs south-facing (Germany)","value":"up to +10","unit":"% per kWp; up to 1200 kWh/kWp","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-next2sun"]},{"label":"Sugar-beet LER under vertical bifacial (2021/2022)","value":"1.00 / 1.18","unit":"-","basis":"measured","sources":["src-reher2024"]}],"best_for":["steppe","arctic","mountain","farm"],"limits":"Needs rows spaced for machinery; lower peak power at noon; rear gain depends on albedo (snow helps, dark soil does not)."},{"name":"Elevated agrivoltaic canopy","principle":"PV raised above crops; partial shade lowers heat and water stress","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Heggelbach 194 kWp research plant ran multiple seasons; commercial build-out under way in DE/FR/IT.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Heggelbach land use efficiency 2017 / 2018","value":"160 / 186","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-fraunhofer2019"]},{"label":"Heggelbach specific yield 2018","value":"1285.3","unit":"kWh/kWp","basis":"measured","sources":["src-fraunhofer2019"]},{"label":"Wheat yield loss under elevated AV, Belgium 2022 / 2023","value":"33 / 46","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-reher2024"]}],"best_for":["steppe","desert","farm"],"limits":"Crop-specific: shade-tolerant crops win, cereals can lose 30-46%; costlier structure."},{"name":"Small wind (HAWT on KRES-7 mast)","principle":"Rotor extracts kinetic energy, P = 0.5 rho A Cp v^3","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Mature product class, but field yields vary widely from rated claims.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Yield gain from tuning one locally built turbine (Scoraig trials)","value":"up to 156","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-leary2020"]}],"best_for":["arctic","coast","mountain","steppe"],"limits":"Real-world output often deviates from manufacturer curves; maintenance of moving parts; ice; noise near guests."},{"name":"Space fission (Kilopower / FSP)","principle":"HALEU or HEU fast/moderated core, sodium heat pipes to Stirling converters","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"KRUSTY (2018) was a one-off 28 h ground nuclear test of a prototype in a relevant environment (TRL 5); no flight-qualified or lunar-environment unit exists. FSP/LR-1 remains a design and procurement programme.","key_numbers":[{"label":"KRUSTY thermal power range","value":"1.5-5.0","unit":"kWt","basis":"measured","sources":["src-krusty2020"]},{"label":"KRUSTY overall system efficiency","value":"about 25","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-krusty2020"]},{"label":"FSP requirement","value":"40 kWe, 10 yr, < 6000 kg","unit":"-","basis":"target","sources":["src-fsp-wiki"]}],"best_for":["lunar"],"limits":"Regulatory, fuel, launch mass; 1 km+ separation from crew; radiator area."}]},{"id":"ENERGY-S2","name":"Electrochemical storage (daily and keep-alive)","function":"Bridge the diurnal gap and carry life-safety loads through cold, dark or faulted periods.","how_it_works":"LFP cells shuttle Li+ between graphite and an olivine FePO4 host; the flat voltage plateau and stable phosphate bond give long cycle life and low thermal-runaway risk, but charging below about 0 C plates lithium metal, so packs must live inside the heated envelope. Sodium-ion cells shuttle the larger Na+ ion into hard carbon; they retain capacity at -30 to -40 C and can be shipped at 0 V, which suits an unheated vestibule keep-alive bank. Iron-air (Form Energy) rusts and de-rusts iron pellets in alkaline electrolyte for about 100 h of discharge at very low energy cost but low round-trip efficiency, a grid-scale tool, not a home cabinet. A battery management system enforces cell voltage, temperature and current windows and reports state of charge to the energy manager.","options":[{"name":"LFP stationary pack (48 V)","principle":"Li-ion, LiFePO4 cathode, graphite anode","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Global commodity; stationary pack price fell to $70/kWh in 2025.","key_numbers":[{"label":"BNEF stationary-storage pack price 2025","value":"70","unit":"USD/kWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bnef2025"]},{"label":"BNEF average LFP pack price, all segments 2025","value":"81","unit":"USD/kWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bnef2025"]},{"label":"Lazard 2025 LCOS, 100 MW / 4 h utility BESS","value":"115-254","unit":"USD/MWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-lazard2025-pdf"]},{"label":"Lazard 2025 LCOS, residential standalone 6 kW / 4 h (unsubsidized)","value":"547-860","unit":"USD/MWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-lazard2025-pdf"]}],"best_for":["all (inside heated envelope)"],"limits":"No charging below ~0 C; installed small-system cost is several times pack price; fire code clearances."},{"name":"Sodium-ion pack","principle":"Na+ intercalation, hard-carbon anode, layered-oxide or polyanion cathode","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"CATL Naxtra in mass production for vehicles from 2025-2026; grid pilots (Peak Energy 3.5 MWh) operate; long-term field data still thin.","key_numbers":[{"label":"CATL Naxtra energy density","value":"175","unit":"Wh/kg","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-catl-newatlas2026","src-sodium-wiki"]},{"label":"CATL Naxtra capacity retention at -40 C","value":"> 90","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-catl-newatlas2026"]},{"label":"Na-ion pack premium over LFP in 2025","value":"about 30","unit":"% more expensive","basis":"reported","sources":["src-sodium-wiki"]},{"label":"Peak Energy grid sodium-ion system, Watkins CO","value":"3.5","unit":"MWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-peak-pvmag2026"]}],"best_for":["arctic","mountain","unheated lockers everywhere"],"limits":"Lower energy density; supply chain young; Natron Energy ceased operations in Sept 2025, so vendor risk is real."},{"name":"Iron-air (multi-day)","principle":"Reversible oxidation of iron to rust with air electrode","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"First commercial units deployed to utilities in Oct 2025; no small-format product.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Discharge duration","value":"100","unit":"h","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-form-latitude2025","src-form-wiki"]},{"label":"Xcel projects","value":"10 MW for up to 100 h each","unit":"-","basis":"reported","sources":["src-form-wiki"]},{"label":"LDES energy-capacity cost needed to cut system electricity cost >= 10%","value":"<= 20","unit":"USD/kWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-sepulveda2021"],"context":"modelled result in the cited study"}],"best_for":["grid-tied campuses, villages"],"limits":"Bulky, low RTE (not disclosed by the company), utility-scale only; not suitable for a 1-jo cabinet."}]},{"id":"ENERGY-S3","name":"Thermal storage and heat pumps (bank surplus as heat)","function":"Turn surplus PV into stored heat or cold at a fraction of electrochemical storage cost, and deliver comfort, hot water and process heat.","how_it_works":"A heat pump moves heat uphill: a compressor raises the refrigerant pressure so it condenses (or, for transcritical CO2, gas-cools) above the target temperature, delivering 2.5-4 units of heat per unit of electricity. Transcritical CO2 has a gliding gas-cooler temperature that matches heating cold mains water to 65-90 C in one pass, ideal for a stratified tank. Sensible storage holds Q = m c dT: 300 L of water across 40 K stores about 14 kWh_th; sand or soapstone at 500-600 C holds far more per tonne and is charged by resistive heaters, then discharged through an air-to-water exchanger. Phase-change materials hold latent heat in a narrow temperature band and shrink the tank. Night-sky and daytime radiative surfaces dump heat to the 8-13 um atmospheric window with no compressor.","options":[{"name":"CO2 heat-pump water tank (default heat bank)","principle":"Transcritical R744 cycle into a stratified insulated tank","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Mass-market in Japan (Eco Cute class) and Europe; cold-region performance studied 2017-2025.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Heat stored in 300 L tank across 40 K","value":"13.96","unit":"kWh_th","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-v3-concept"],"formula":"300 L x 1.163 Wh/(L K) x 40 K"},{"label":"v3 design value: 500 L tank","value":"about 23","unit":"kWh_th from about 8 kWh_e at COP about 3","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-v3-concept"]}],"best_for":["all except lunar"],"limits":"COP falls in deep cold; tank losses; legionella regime needs periodic 60 C+."},{"name":"Sand / soapstone high-temperature store","principle":"Resistive heating of a packed bed to 500-600 C, air-loop discharge","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Pornainen 1 MW / 100 MWh unit in district-heating service since June 2025 and through a severe winter.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Pornainen storage / thermal power","value":"100 MWh / 1 MW","unit":"-","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pne-essnews2025"]},{"label":"Storage medium mass (crushed soapstone)","value":"about 2000","unit":"t","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pne-essnews2025"]},{"label":"Round-trip efficiency","value":"80-90","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-pne-ie2026","src-pne-newatlas2025"]},{"label":"Network emissions reduction after first year","value":"70","unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pne-ie2026","src-pne-newatlas2025"]}],"best_for":["arctic","forest","mountain","steppe (heating-dominated)"],"limits":"Heat only (electricity-out is uneconomic); small units lose a larger fraction per day (surface-to-volume); hot-surface safety."},{"name":"Industrial brick heat battery","principle":"Resistive heating of refractory brick to > 1000 C, steam or hot air out","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Rondo 100 MWh unit in daily automatic operation since Oct 2025.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Rondo unit capacity / onsite solar","value":"100 MWh / 20 MW","unit":"-","basis":"reported","sources":["src-rondo-pvmag2025"]},{"label":"Rondo round-trip efficiency","value":"> 97","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-rondo-pvmag2025"]}],"best_for":["campus or village heat"],"limits":"Industrial scale; not a habitat appliance."},{"name":"Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) and sky radiators","principle":"High solar reflectance + high 8-13 um emittance radiates to 3 K space","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Commercial panels (SkyCool) demonstrated at a US Army base under ARPA-E; coatings on market; durability and humidity limits remain.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Typical PDRC cooling power","value":"100-150","unit":"W/m2","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pdrc-wiki"]},{"label":"Tropical cooling potential","value":"10-40","unit":"W/m2","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pdrc-wiki"]},{"label":"Dual-mode cooling / heating power density","value":"71.6 / 643.4","unit":"W/m2","basis":"measured","sources":["src-li2020"]},{"label":"Simulated US heating+cooling saving with dual mode","value":"19.2","unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-li2020"],"context":"modelled result in the cited study"}],"best_for":["desert","steppe","rooftop"],"limits":"Humidity, cloud, dust and dew degrade output; overcooling in winter unless switchable (cf. v3 M10 FLIP-FOLD)."},{"name":"PCM buffer on heat pump","principle":"Latent heat of a salt hydrate or paraffin melting near the supply temperature","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Packaged domestic PCM batteries are sold; load-shifting studies 2013-2026.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["tight cores (KURA)"],"limits":"Higher cost per kWh than water; subcooling and cycling stability; hard to read state of charge."}]},{"id":"ENERGY-S4","name":"Long-duration and seasonal storage","function":"Carry multi-day storms and the winter deficit at high latitude without diesel.","how_it_works":"Seasonal storage needs energy-capacity cost near or below $20/kWh to pay off, because each kWh of capacity is cycled only a few times a year. Hydrogen splits water by electrolysis (about 50-55 kWh per kg H2 in practice, about 33 kWh LHV recoverable) and returns electricity through a fuel cell at roughly 50%, so round trip is about 30-40%, but tank capacity is cheap to add. Iron-based hydrogen storage stores H2 by reducing iron oxide and releases it by steam oxidation at low pressure. For habitats the cheapest seasonal 'store' is usually oversized PV plus curtailment, plus thermal mass and a demand ladder that defers non-essential loads.","options":[{"name":"PV-electrolyser-H2-fuel-cell house","principle":"Power-to-H2-to-power with metal-hydride or pressure tank","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Several commercial home systems and northern-climate feasibility studies exist; low efficiency and cost remain barriers. (Commercial home-system claim not sourced in this sweep: unverified.)","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["arctic (winter deficit)"],"limits":"Round trip roughly a third; electrolyser and fuel-cell maintenance; H2 safety zoning. Efficiency numbers here are textbook ranges, not sourced from this sweep."},{"name":"Iron-oxide hydrogen store","principle":"Fe3O4 + H2 reduction to Fe; steam oxidation releases H2","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"1:10 single-household pilot reactor (0.21 m3) demonstrated in 2024.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Pilot reactor volume","value":"0.21","unit":"m3","basis":"measured","sources":["src-iron-h2-2024"]}],"best_for":["arctic","mountain"],"limits":"High-temperature reactor; low TRL."},{"name":"Oversize PV + curtail","principle":"Panels are cheaper than storage; size for the worst month and dump surplus to heat","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Standard off-grid practice; only the configurator rule is new.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Global PV installed 2025","value":"about 698","unit":"GW","basis":"reported","sources":["src-iea-pvps2026"]}],"best_for":["all terrestrial"],"limits":"Land/roof area; at polar night there is nothing to oversize, so heat storage plus a fuel backup remains."}]},{"id":"ENERGY-S5","name":"DC spine and power electronics","function":"Distribute power with few conversions, and make priority physical so the site survives a controller failure.","how_it_works":"PV, batteries, LEDs, BLDC fans, pumps and compressors are DC inside, so a DC bus removes inverter-rectifier pairs. Droop control lets every converter set its current from the bus voltage alone: when generation exceeds load the voltage rises, when storage runs low it falls, so loads can be assigned voltage thresholds and shed in priority order without communication. Current/OS formalises this decentralised rule-set for 350 V class buildings; EMerge Alliance standardises occupied-space and data/telecom DC; 48-60 V stays touch-safe (SELV/ELV) for in-floor cassettes. Solid-state circuit breakers interrupt DC faults (no current zero) in microseconds, which is the main protection challenge of DC.","options":[{"name":"48-60 V DC house spine (v3 M08)","principle":"SELV-class DC bus in floor cassettes, point-of-load converters","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Telecom 48 V and Victron/Venus OS 48 V systems are mature; ORIJO cassette integration is new.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["home, hotel key, farm cassette"],"limits":"High currents above about 5 kW per branch; copper mass; use 380 V for heavy loads."},{"name":"380 V / 350 V building DC (Current/OS, EMerge)","principle":"Low-voltage DC microgrid with interlink converter to AC grid","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Reference buildings operate (Vinci Wave, Lille); INL lists DC microgrids at TRL 7.","key_numbers":[{"label":"PV energy used more efficiently, DC vs AC (Bosch simulation study)","value":"6-8","unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-fregosi2015"],"context":"modelled result in the cited study"},{"label":"Energy saving at Vinci Energies Wave building","value":"20","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-currentos"]},{"label":"Peak grid exchange reduction in reference projects","value":"factor 2-5","unit":"-","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-currentos"]},{"label":"DC microgrid TRL (INL)","value":"7","unit":"TRL","basis":"reported","sources":["src-gridtechpedia"]}],"best_for":["hotel, farm, research station"],"limits":"Few certified appliances; protection and arc-fault rules immature; inspector unfamiliarity."},{"name":"Lunar HV DC transmission","principle":"+/-2800 VDC over >= 1 km from reactor to users","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"Design studies only (NETS-2022).","key_numbers":[{"label":"FSP transmission voltage","value":"+/-2800","unit":"VDC","basis":"target","sources":["src-fsp40-ntrs2022"]}],"best_for":["lunar"],"limits":"Dust, thermal cycling, arc behaviour in vacuum."}]},{"id":"ENERGY-S6","name":"Energy management, forecasting and digital twin","function":"Decide every 5-15 minutes what runs, charges or waits, against weather and occupancy forecasts, while guaranteeing the life-safety floor.","how_it_works":"Model predictive control solves a small optimisation over a 24-72 h horizon using a grey-box model of battery, tank, building thermal mass and crop lighting, re-planning each step with fresh PV and occupancy forecasts. Reinforcement learning can learn the policy from data but field evidence is thin and safety is hard to certify, so the practical pattern is MPC (or rule ladder) as the safe baseline with learning only tuning parameters. A digital twin of each site (same model, fleet-calibrated) lets the operator detect degradation, for example a fouled heat-pump coil, by comparing measured with predicted kWh. The firmware priority ladder (life safety > water > food > heat to people > comfort > guest extras) is the non-negotiable outer loop.","options":[{"name":"Economic MPC over battery + heat-pump tank + loads","principle":"Receding-horizon optimisation with forecasts","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Many residential demonstrations and commercial HEMS; not yet plug-and-play for off-grid multi-asset sites.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["all"],"limits":"Needs a calibrated model per site; forecast error at polar/mountain sites."},{"name":"RL-tuned controller","principle":"Model-based or batch RL learns dispatch from data","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"A few field tests (e.g. residential self-consumption, Belgium) versus many simulations.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["fleet-level tuning"],"limits":"Safety certification; sample efficiency; distribution shift between climates."},{"name":"Voltage-droop priority ladder (hardware fallback)","principle":"Each load sheds at its own bus-voltage threshold","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Low-voltage disconnects and droop sharing are standard in telecom and Current/OS designs.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["all, especially remote"],"limits":"Coarse; cannot anticipate tomorrow's weather."}]},{"id":"ENERGY-S7","name":"Off-grid sizing method","function":"Choose PV kWp, storage kWh and backup so the loss-of-load probability meets the target at least cost.","how_it_works":"Simulate hour by hour over many years of weather (Borowy & Salameh used 30 years of hourly data): state of charge s(t+1) = s(t) + eta_c P_pv - L/eta_d, clipped to [s_min, s_max]; any hour with unmet load counts toward LOLP. Sweep array and battery sizes to find the cost-minimal pair on the LOLP iso-line. Quick screening uses PV_kWp = E_day / (PSH_design x PR) and C_bat = A x E_day / (DoD x eta). For habitats the design month is the worst month, and loads are split into firm (life safety) and deferrable (farm lighting, laundry, heat to tank) so that deferrable loads, not storage, absorb the shortfall.","options":[{"name":"Hourly LOLP simulation (chronological)","principle":"Energy balance over multi-year weather series","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Textbook method since the 1990s; >1000 citations for the 1996 methodology.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["all"],"limits":"Needs local weather data; deterministic loads understate risk."},{"name":"Autonomy-days rule of thumb","principle":"Battery = autonomy days x daily load / usable fraction","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Industry practice for telecom/BTS and off-grid homes.","key_numbers":[],"best_for":["early configurator screening"],"limits":"Ignores weather correlation; oversizes in sunny sites and undersizes in polar winter."}]}],"projects":[{"id":"P01","name":"Princess Elisabeth Antarctica","org":"International Polar Foundation / BELARE","country":"Belgium (Antarctica)","year_or_period":"2009-present","what":"Wind + solar polar research station on a micro smart grid with lead-acid batteries and backup generators; up to 16 scientists in summer","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"A priority-ladder smart grid plus a passive envelope makes zero-emission polar operation possible; batteries are still lead-acid and a generator remains as backup.","sources":["src-pea-wiki","src-v3-concept"]},{"id":"P02","name":"Pornainen Sand Battery","org":"Polar Night Energy / Loviisan Lampo","country":"Finland","year_or_period":"2025-present","what":"1 MW / 100 MWh crushed-soapstone heat store for a district-heating network","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Survived a very cold, price-volatile winter; oil boiler did not run; wood chips cut 60% and emissions 70%. Heat-out thermal storage is commercially proven.","sources":["src-pne-essnews2025","src-pne-ie2026","src-pne-newatlas2025","src-yt-pne"]},{"id":"P03","name":"Lahti Energia Vaaksy sand battery","org":"Polar Night Energy / Lahti Energia","country":"Finland","year_or_period":"2025-2027","what":"2 MW / 250 MWh natural-sand store, > 500 C","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"Scale-up 2.5x in capacity within two years of the first unit; expected completion summer 2027.","sources":["src-pne-essnews2025"]},{"id":"P04","name":"Form Energy iron-air deployments","org":"Form Energy","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2023-2026","what":"100-hour iron-air batteries for utilities (Great River Energy MN, Xcel 10 MW projects) and data centres","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"First commercial units began deploying Oct 2025 at Great River Energy (Minnesota); >$1.2 bn raised (Latitude Media); 2026 deals include Google (300 MW / 30 GWh, Minnesota data centre) and Crusoe (12 GWh, deliveries from 2027) per Wikipedia. Multi-day storage is a utility asset, not a house appliance.","sources":["src-form-latitude2025","src-form-wiki","src-yt-form"]},{"id":"P05","name":"Rondo heat battery at Holmes Western","org":"Rondo Energy","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2025-present","what":"100 MWh brick heat battery fed by 20 MW off-grid solar, delivering steam","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Off-grid solar can directly drive a firm heat supply through cheap thermal storage. RTE > 97% and 'daily automatic operation since Oct 2025' are company claims reported by pv magazine; the facility keeps its gas boilers alongside.","sources":["src-rondo-pvmag2025"]},{"id":"P06","name":"Antora Energy thermal batteries","org":"Antora Energy","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2023-2026","what":"Carbon-block thermal batteries for industrial heat and power","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Raised $550 M oversubscribed Series C (31 July 2026) after $150 M Series B (2024); reports a 5 GWh system in South Dakota and a US factory opened 2024 (company statements via Mercom); validates investor appetite for thermal storage.","sources":["src-antora-news2026"]},{"id":"P07","name":"CATL Naxtra sodium-ion","org":"CATL","country":"China","year_or_period":"2025-2026","what":"175 Wh/kg sodium-ion cells in mass production; passenger EV from mid-2026","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Cold-tolerant chemistry (claimed > 90% capacity at -40 C) is now a commodity option for unheated keep-alive banks.","sources":["src-catl-newatlas2026","src-sodium-wiki"]},{"id":"P08","name":"Peak Energy sodium-ion BESS","org":"Peak Energy","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2024-2027","what":"Grid sodium-ion storage; 3.5 MWh Watkins CO system; 4 GWh/yr Sacramento factory planned, shipments Q1 2027","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"> 6 GWh of commitments to 2030; production not yet started, so supply for small buyers is 2027+.","sources":["src-peak-pvmag2026"]},{"id":"P09","name":"Natron Energy","org":"Natron Energy","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2012-2025","what":"Sodium-ion (Prussian blue) cells; $40 M Michigan facility opened April 2024","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Ceased operations 3 Sept 2025 citing funding and commercialisation; chemistry promise does not guarantee vendor survival.","sources":["src-sodium-wiki"]},{"id":"P10","name":"Ambri liquid-metal battery","org":"Ambri","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2010-present (Chapter 11 May-Aug 2024)","what":"Ca-alloy / molten salt / antimony high-temperature grid battery","status":"restructured","outcome_or_lesson":"Chapter 11 in May 2024; assets sold via a Section 363 sale to a consortium of its pre-bankruptcy lenders (Gates Frontier, Paulson, Fortistar et al.) and the company emerged in Aug 2024 as a 'leaner' firm still aiming to commercialise. Lesson stands: capital-intensive manufacturing scale-up outran financing and equity holders were reset. 2026 operating status not confirmed in this sweep.","sources":["src-ambri-pvmag2024"]},{"id":"P11","name":"KRUSTY / Kilopower","org":"NASA / DOE / LANL / NNSS","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2015-2018","what":"Ground nuclear test of a 1 kWe-class heat-pipe reactor with Stirling converters","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"28 h test, 1.5-5.0 kWt, fuel about 880 C, about 25% system efficiency; reactor self-regulated through simulated failures.","sources":["src-krusty2020","src-kilopower-wiki","src-krusty-ntrs2018","src-yt-krusty"]},{"id":"P12","name":"Fission Surface Power (FSP) / Lunar Reactor","org":"NASA / DOE","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2020-2030","what":"40 kWe, 10-year lunar reactor (< 6 t); Phase 1 $5 M contracts 2022 (Lockheed Martin, Westinghouse, IX); 2025 directive raised target to >= 100 kW ready for launch late 2029","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Lunar baseline power is shifting to fission; habitat power bricks must be source-agnostic. Wikipedia (accessed 2026-10-29) reports NASA said in March 2026 that Lunar Reactor-1 (LR-1) development would be informed by a Space Reactor-1 mission planned for Dec 2028 (secondary source).","sources":["src-fsp-wiki","src-fsp40-ntrs2022","src-sciam2025"]},{"id":"P13","name":"Heggelbach agrivoltaic research plant","org":"Fraunhofer ISE / Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach","country":"Germany","year_or_period":"2016-present","what":"194 kWp elevated agri-PV over a third of a hectare of arable crops","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Land use efficiency 160% (2017) and 186% (2018 hot summer); celery +12%, clover -8%. Results are from 2017-2018; operation status in 2026 not re-confirmed in this sweep.","sources":["src-fraunhofer2019","src-trommsdorff2021"]},{"id":"P14","name":"Belgian arable agrivoltaic pilots","org":"KU Leuven et al.","country":"Belgium","year_or_period":"2019-2023","what":"Vertical bifacial, tracked and elevated AV over sugar beet and wheat","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Vertical LER 1.00-1.18; elevated over wheat lost 33-46% yield (LER 0.97-1.09); construction soil compaction mattered.","sources":["src-reher2024"]},{"id":"P15","name":"Next2Sun vertical agri-PV parks","org":"Next2Sun","country":"Germany","year_or_period":"2015-present","what":"Vertical bifacial E-W fences on farmland (e.g. 3.5 MWp Merzig-Wellingen)","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Morning/evening production complements south-facing PV; farming continues between rows.","sources":["src-next2sun"]},{"id":"P16","name":"Vinci Energies 'Wave' DC building","org":"Vinci Energies / Current/OS","country":"France","year_or_period":"2020s","what":"350 V DC network for IT and 48 V lighting without inverters","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Claimed 20% energy saving; DC buildings are real but still showcase projects.","sources":["src-currentos"]},{"id":"P17","name":"Bosch DC microgrid demonstrations","org":"Bosch / NREL","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2012-2015","what":"380 V DC commercial-building microgrid with PV","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"Simulated 6-8% better use of PV energy than AC; gain is real but modest, so DC must be justified by simplicity and resilience too.","sources":["src-fregosi2015"]},{"id":"P18","name":"SolarContainer / foldable PV containers","org":"Various (e.g. Solarcontainer (AT), HighJoule HJFoldSolar)","country":"Austria / global","year_or_period":"2016-present","what":"Containerised PV arrays that unfold on rails or hinges, 10-160 kWp","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Proves fold-out PV logistics; shows hours-scale deployment; most are generator substitutes, not integrated habitats.","sources":["src-mobilesolarcontainer","src-yt-solarcontainer","src-pat-US10666185B2"]},{"id":"P19","name":"TenFold self-deploying solar panel","org":"TenFold Engineering","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2016","what":"Hydraulically unfolding PV structure demo","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"Self-deploying demo existed a decade ago; current status not confirmed in this sweep.","sources":["src-yt-tenfold"]},{"id":"P20","name":"SkyCool radiative cooling panels at Ft Moore","org":"SkyCool Systems / ARPA-E","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2020-2024","what":"PDRC panels pre-cooling condenser fluid of building cooling systems","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"Field demonstration completed (report 2024); savings figures not extracted in this sweep.","sources":["src-skycool2024"]},{"id":"P21","name":"Plenty Unlimited","org":"Plenty","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2014-present (Chapter 11 March-May 2025)","what":"Vertical farming, ~$1 bn raised, $1.9 bn peak valuation","status":"restructured","outcome_or_lesson":"Closed Compton leafy-greens farm Dec 2024 citing rising California energy and operating costs; prepackaged Chapter 11 filed 23 March 2025, existing equity cancelled; plan effective 29 May 2025 and Plenty continues as a smaller company around its Richmond, Virginia strawberry farm. The leafy-greens vertical-farm business failed; the company did not disappear.","sources":["src-plenty-elevenflo"]},{"id":"P22","name":"Bowery Farming","org":"Bowery","country":"USA","year_or_period":"2015-2024","what":"Vertical farming, >$700 M raised, $2.3 bn valuation","status":"closed","outcome_or_lesson":"Ceased all operations Nov 2024 after a failed sale, entering an assignment for the benefit of creditors (Sherwood Partners); a $150 M KKR loan, difficulty securing financing and weaker premium-produce demand were cited.","sources":["src-bowery-yahoo","src-plenty-elevenflo"]},{"id":"P23","name":"Jones Food Company","org":"Jones Food Company","country":"UK","year_or_period":"2024-2025","what":"14,500 m2 vertical farm powered only by renewable electricity","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Placed into administration April 2025 without having made a profit: green electricity did not fix unit economics.","sources":["src-vf-wiki"]},{"id":"P24","name":"DESALRO 2.0 SWRO","org":"ITC DESAL+ Living Lab","country":"Spain (Gran Canaria)","year_or_period":"2025","what":"2,500 m3/day seawater RO plant (design scaled up to 5,000 m3/day)","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Record 1.794 kWh/m3 at 40% recovery (Feb 2025): desalination energy is small next to farm lighting.","sources":["src-penate2026"]},{"id":"P25","name":"OrigamiSat-2 / PowerCube deployable arrays","org":"JAXA programme / DCUBED","country":"Japan / Germany","year_or_period":"2023-2024","what":"Origami membrane perovskite array on a 3U CubeSat; 100 W array stowed in 1U","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Origami PV is maturing in space; terrestrial fold-out arrays can borrow hinge and stowage logic.","sources":["src-dcubed2023","src-hanaflex2015"]},{"id":"P26","name":"Showa Station clean microgrid study","org":"JARE / Japanese universities","country":"Japan (Antarctica)","year_or_period":"2015-2020","what":"Distributed diesel + renewables microgrid studies to cut fuel at Showa Base","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Polar stations remain mostly diesel; renewables penetration is studied incrementally.","sources":["src-showa2020"]}],"papers":[{"id":"PA01","title":"Benchmarking energy efficiency in vertical farming: Status and prospects","authors":"Miserocchi L, Franco A","year":2024,"venue":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.tsep.2024.103165","finding":"Current vertical farms use 10-18 kWh per kg lettuce (850-1150 kWh/m2/yr); a technical benchmark of 3.1-7.4 kWh/kg is projected.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA02","title":"Vertical farming: productivity, environmental impact, and resource use. A review","authors":"Pennisi G, Gianquinto G, Marcelis LFM, Martin M, Orsini F","year":2025,"venue":"Agronomy for Sustainable Development","doi_or_url":"10.1007/s13593-025-01055-w","finding":"Lettuce yields 60-105 kg FW/m2/yr at 0.08-0.13 kg FW/kWh with about 2.9 kg CO2 per kg FW.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA03","title":"The dark side of lighting: a critical analysis of vertical farms' environmental impact","authors":"Stanghellini C, Katzin D","year":2024,"venue":"Journal of Cleaner Production","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142359","finding":"Urban vertical farming is unlikely to be more climate-friendly than long-distance transport; greenhouses may outperform it.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA04","title":"The emergence of indoor agriculture as a driver of global energy demand","authors":"Mills E","year":2025,"venue":"npj Sustainable Agriculture","doi_or_url":"10.1038/s44264-025-00091-z","finding":"Meta-analysis of 116 studies: CEA supplies < 1% of US food yet uses more energy than all open-field farming; solar-powering it needs about 3x the land of open-field farming.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA05","title":"Can sunlight replace LEDs in vertical farms? A critical assessment of optical-fiber daylighting strategies","authors":"Ceccanti F, Bischi A, Antonelli M, Baccioli A","year":2026,"venue":"arXiv","doi_or_url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.24385","finding":"Hybrid daylight strategies save about 50% electricity (min 3.16 kWh/kg); fibre delivery efficiency is only 19-27%.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA06","title":"Plant factories versus greenhouses: comparison of resource use efficiency","authors":"Graamans L, Baeza E, van den Dobbelsteen A, Tsafaras I, Stanghellini C","year":2018,"venue":"Agricultural Systems","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.agsy.2017.11.003","finding":"Landmark comparison (518 citations) of plant-factory vs greenhouse energy use across climates; abstract numbers not retrieved in this sweep.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA07","title":"Potential of sugar beet and wheat production in vertical bifacial, tracked, or elevated agrivoltaic systems in Belgium","authors":"Reher T, Lavaert C, Willockx B, et al.","year":2024,"venue":"Applied Energy","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122679","finding":"Sugar beet under vertical/tracked AV lost 11-19% yield; LER 1.00-1.22; wheat under elevated AV lost 33-46%.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA08","title":"Combining food and energy production: design of an agrivoltaic system applied in arable and vegetable farming in Germany","authors":"Trommsdorff M, et al.","year":2021,"venue":"Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.rser.2020.110694","finding":"Heggelbach design and results (403 citations); press release reports land use efficiency 160-186%.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA09","title":"A comparative study of DC and AC microgrids in commercial buildings across different climates and operating profiles","authors":"Fregosi D, Ravula S, Brhlik D, et al.","year":2015,"venue":"IEEE ICDCM","doi_or_url":"10.1109/ICDCM.2015.7152031","finding":"DC microgrids use PV energy about 6-8% more efficiently than AC.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA10","title":"The design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonized power systems","authors":"Sepulveda NA, Jenkins JD, Edington A, Mallapragada DS, Lester RK","year":2021,"venue":"Nature Energy","doi_or_url":"10.1038/s41560-021-00796-8","finding":"LDES energy-capacity cost must be <= $20/kWh to cut electricity cost >= 10%, and <= $1/kWh to fully displace firm generation.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA11","title":"Results of the KRUSTY Nuclear System Test","authors":"Poston DI, Gibson MA, Sanchez RG, McClure P","year":2020,"venue":"Nuclear Technology","doi_or_url":"10.1080/00295450.2020.1730673","finding":"28 h test at 1.5-5.0 kWt, fuel about 880 C, each 80 We-rated Stirling made about 90 We, system efficiency about 25%.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA12","title":"A deployable 40 kWe lunar fission surface power concept","authors":"Oleson S, Packard T, Turnbull E, Gibson M, et al.","year":2022,"venue":"NETS-2022 (NASA NTRS)","doi_or_url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20220004670","finding":"HALEU YH-moderated heat-pipe reactor with Stirling converters, placed >= 1 km from users, transmitting at +/-2800 VDC.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA13","title":"Analysis of stationary, photovoltaic-based surface power system designs at the lunar south pole","authors":"Freeh JE","year":2008,"venue":"AIAA SPACE 2008","doi_or_url":"10.2514/6.2008-7810","finding":"For 5 kW sunlit / 2 kW night, PV + regenerative fuel cells are significantly lighter than PV + batteries.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA14","title":"Integration of daytime radiative cooling and solar heating for year-round energy saving in buildings","authors":"Li X, Sun B, Sui C, et al. (Hsu PC)","year":2020,"venue":"Nature Communications","doi_or_url":"10.1038/s41467-020-19790-x","finding":"Switchable device: 71.6 W/m2 cooling, 643.4 W/m2 heating; 19.2% simulated US HVAC saving.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA15","title":"Passive radiative cooling below ambient air temperature under direct sunlight","authors":"Raman AP, Anoma MA, Zhu L, Rephaeli E, Fan S","year":2014,"venue":"Nature","doi_or_url":"10.1038/nature13883","finding":"Landmark first demonstration of sub-ambient daytime radiative cooling (3,609 citations); figures not retrieved in this sweep.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA16","title":"Temporal and spatial variability of energy intensity for atmospheric water generators","authors":"Brenes AT, Chini CM","year":2023,"venue":"Environ. Res.: Infrastruct. Sustain.","doi_or_url":"10.1088/2634-4505/accec9","finding":"Refrigeration AWGs use 0.02-3.64 kWh/L and solar sorption AWGs 3.19-5.29 kWh/L across the US (1985-2019 weather).","type":"model"},{"id":"PA17","title":"The worldwide lowest specific energy consumption measured in a seawater desalination plant","authors":"Penate-Suarez B, et al.","year":2026,"venue":"Energy Conversion and Management: X","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.ecmx.2026.101682","finding":"SWRO measured 1.794 kWh/m3 at 40% recovery (Feb 2025).","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA18","title":"The Scoraig wind trials: in situ power performance measurements of locally manufactured small wind turbines","authors":"Leary J, Piggott H, Howell R","year":2020,"venue":"Wind Engineering","doi_or_url":"10.1177/0309524X20932501","finding":"Seven small turbines over- and under-performed predictions about equally; tuning raised one turbine's yield up to 156%.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA19","title":"Methodology for optimally sizing the combination of a battery bank and PV array in a wind/PV hybrid system","authors":"Borowy BS, Salameh ZM","year":1996,"venue":"IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion","doi_or_url":"10.1109/60.507648","finding":"Landmark LOLP sizing method using 30 years of hourly wind and irradiance data (1035 citations).","type":"model"},{"id":"PA20","title":"A review on recent sizing methodologies of hybrid renewable energy systems","authors":"(Energy Convers. Manag. review)","year":2019,"venue":"Energy Conversion and Management","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112027","finding":"Review of HRES sizing (LPSP/LOLP, metaheuristics); 486 citations; no single number extracted.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA21","title":"Using reinforcement learning for maximizing residential self-consumption - results from a field test","authors":"Soares A, Geysen D, Spiessens F, et al.","year":2019,"venue":"Energy and Buildings","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109608","finding":"One of few RL field tests (battery, DHW, flexible loads); quantitative result not retrieved in this sweep.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"PA22","title":"Economic model predictive control of combined thermal and electric residential building energy systems","authors":"(Applied Energy 2019)","year":2019,"venue":"Applied Energy","doi_or_url":"10.1016/J.APENERGY.2019.01.097","finding":"EMPC co-optimises PV, battery and heat pump; 113 citations; numbers not extracted.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA23","title":"Technical feasibility evaluation of a solar PV based off-grid domestic energy system with battery and hydrogen energy storage in northern climates","authors":"Puranen P, Kosonen A, Ahola J","year":2021,"venue":"Solar Energy","doi_or_url":"10.1016/j.solener.2020.10.089","finding":"Finnish off-grid PV + battery + H2 + ground-source heat pump feasibility (155 citations); numbers not retrieved.","type":"model"},{"id":"PA24","title":"Safe seasonal energy and hydrogen storage in a 1:10 single-household-sized pilot reactor based on iron","authors":"(Sustainable Energy & Fuels 2024)","year":2024,"venue":"Sustainable Energy & Fuels","doi_or_url":"10.1039/d3se01228j","finding":"Iron-based seasonal H2 storage demonstrated in a 0.21 m3 pilot reactor.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA25","title":"Performance of heat pump integrated phase change material thermal storage for electric load shifting","authors":"(Energy and Buildings 2019)","year":2019,"venue":"Energy and Buildings","doi_or_url":"10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2019.02.026","finding":"PCM store on heat pump enables load shifting (101 citations); numbers not extracted.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA26","title":"Autonomous deployment of a solar panel using elastic origami and distributed shape-memory-polymer actuators","authors":"(Phys. Rev. Applied)","year":2019,"venue":"Physical Review Applied","doi_or_url":"10.1103/PhysRevApplied.11.064069","finding":"Origami solar panel self-deploys with distributed SMP actuators instead of motors (147 citations).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA27","title":"Renewable energy integration in diesel-based microgrids at the Canadian Arctic","authors":"(Proc. IEEE 2019)","year":2019,"venue":"Proceedings of the IEEE","doi_or_url":"10.1109/JPROC.2019.2932743","finding":"Review of renewable penetration in Arctic diesel microgrids; numbers not extracted.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA28","title":"First look at safety and performance evaluation of commercial sodium-ion batteries","authors":"Carter R, Waller GH, Jacob C, et al.","year":2025,"venue":"Energies","doi_or_url":"10.3390/en18030661","finding":"Independent abuse and performance testing of commercial Na-ion cells (26 citations); numbers not extracted.","type":"experiment"}],"numbers":[{"label":"Vertical-farm specific energy, lettuce (current facilities)","value":"10-18","unit":"kWh/kg FW","basis":"reported","sources":["src-miserocchi2024"],"id":"EN01","context":"Literature review of existing farms; = 850-1150 kWh/m2/yr"},{"label":"Vertical-farm technical energy benchmark","value":"3.1-7.4","unit":"kWh/kg FW","basis":"reported","sources":["src-miserocchi2024"],"id":"EN02","context":"modelled result in the cited study; Projected with best equipment and control"},{"label":"Vertical-farm energy use efficiency","value":"0.08-0.13","unit":"kg FW/kWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pennisi2025"],"id":"EN03","context":"Equivalent to 7.7-12.5 kWh/kg"},{"label":"Vertical-farm lettuce yield","value":"60-105","unit":"kg FW/m2/yr","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pennisi2025"],"id":"EN04","context":"Cultivation-area basis"},{"label":"ORIJO HATA-4 cassette implied specific energy","value":"about 11-22 (central about 15)","unit":"kWh/kg","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-v3-concept"],"id":"EN05","context":"14.4-19.2 kWh/day x 7 / 6.1-8.9 kg/week = 11.3-22.0 kWh/kg (full range; v3 concept.json states 'about 11-22, central about 15'); overlaps and partly exceeds EN01 10-18"},{"label":"Hybrid daylight + LED minimum SEEC","value":"3.16","unit":"kWh/kg","basis":"reported","sources":["src-ceccanti2026"],"id":"EN06","context":"modelled result in the cited study; About 50% electricity saving vs LED-only for hybrid strategies; daylight-only reaches 1.81 kWh/kg but with 52% lower productivity; fibre useful-PAR delivery 19-27% (arXiv preprint, not peer reviewed)"},{"label":"Stationary battery pack price 2025","value":"70","unit":"USD/kWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-bnef2025"],"id":"EN07","context":"-45% vs 2024; all-segment average $108/kWh"},{"label":"Utility 4 h BESS LCOS 2025","value":"115-254","unit":"USD/MWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-lazard2025-pdf"],"id":"EN08","context":"Unsubsidized, utility-scale standalone 100 MW / 4 h, Lazard LCOS v10.0 (2025). Same chart: 2 h 129-277; C&I 1 MW/2 h 319-506; residential 6 kW/4 h 547-860 USD/MWh"},{"label":"LDES cost threshold for >= 10% system cost reduction","value":"<= 20","unit":"USD/kWh (energy capacity)","basis":"reported","sources":["src-sepulveda2021"],"id":"EN09","context":"modelled result in the cited study; Grid capacity-expansion modelling"},{"label":"Form Energy discharge duration","value":"100","unit":"h","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-form-latitude2025"],"id":"EN10","context":"Iron-air, first commercial units Oct 2025"},{"label":"Sand battery round-trip (heat-to-heat) efficiency","value":"80-90","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-pne-ie2026","src-pne-newatlas2025"],"id":"EN11","context":"Interesting Engineering 2026: 80-90% round trip, about 85% recovered after weeks; New Atlas 2025 quoted 90%; company figures, not independently measured"},{"label":"Pornainen sand battery","value":"1 MW / 100 MWh, ~2000 t soapstone","unit":"-","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pne-essnews2025","src-pne-ie2026"],"id":"EN12","context":"500-600 C at full charge (Pornainen operates at 500 C); 80-100 C district-heat output (Interesting Engineering 2026). Size and mass from ESS News 2025."},{"label":"Heat in a 500 L tank across 40 K","value":"about 23","unit":"kWh_th","basis":"calculated","sources":["src-v3-concept"],"id":"EN13","context":"500 x 1.163 x 40 = 23.3 kWh_th; ~8 kWh_e at COP 3"},{"label":"CATL Naxtra sodium-ion energy density / -40 C retention","value":"175 Wh/kg / > 90%","unit":"-","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-catl-newatlas2026"],"id":"EN14","context":"New Atlas 2026: >90% at -40 C, still operates at -50 C; Wikipedia: 93% at -30 C and >10,000 cycles; all manufacturer claims. Vehicle (Changan Nevo A06) launch mid-2026 announced; delivery not confirmed in this sweep"},{"label":"DC vs AC PV utilisation gain","value":"6-8","unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-fregosi2015"],"id":"EN15","context":"modelled result in the cited study; Bosch commercial-building simulation"},{"label":"Agrivoltaic land use efficiency, Heggelbach","value":"160 (2017) / 186 (2018)","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["src-fraunhofer2019"],"id":"EN16","context":"194 kWp, 1285.3 kWh/kWp in 2018"},{"label":"Vertical bifacial agrivoltaic LER, sugar beet","value":"1.00-1.18","unit":"-","basis":"measured","sources":["src-reher2024"],"id":"EN17","context":"Belgium 2021-2022; tracked 1.17-1.22"},{"label":"KRUSTY thermal power / system efficiency","value":"1.5-5.0 kWt / about 25%","unit":"-","basis":"measured","sources":["src-krusty2020"],"id":"EN18","context":"28 h nuclear test, March 2018"},{"label":"FSP requirement","value":"40 kWe, 10 yr, < 6000 kg, < 5 rem/yr at 1 km","unit":"-","basis":"target","sources":["src-fsp-wiki"],"id":"EN19","context":"40 kW at 120 Vdc per Phase 1 RFP (Wikipedia); implied specific power about 6.7 W/kg (calculated 40,000 W / 6,000 kg)"},{"label":"NASA 2025 lunar reactor directive","value":">= 100 kW, ready for launch late 2029","unit":"-","basis":"target","sources":["src-sciam2025"],"id":"EN20","context":"Solicitation within 60 days of directive"},{"label":"PDRC typical cooling power","value":"100-150 (10-40 tropical)","unit":"W/m2","basis":"reported","sources":["src-pdrc-wiki"],"id":"EN21","context":"Humidity and cloud weaken effect"},{"label":"SWRO record specific energy","value":"1.794","unit":"kWh/m3","basis":"measured","sources":["src-penate2026"],"id":"EN22","context":"Guinness World Record, Feb 2025; 40% recovery, 37 g/L feed at 22 C; product TDS < 200 mg/L"},{"label":"Atmospheric water generator energy intensity","value":"0.02-3.64 (refrigeration); 3.19-5.29 (solar sorption)","unit":"kWh/L","basis":"reported","sources":["src-brenes2023"],"id":"EN23","context":"modelled result in the cited study; = 20-5,290 kWh/m3, i.e. 10-3000x SWRO"},{"label":"DHW heat for 4 people at 50 L/person/day, 10 to 55 C","value":"10.5","unit":"kWh_th/day","basis":"calculated","sources":[],"id":"EN24","context":"200 L x 1.163 Wh/(L K) x 45 K; = 3.5 kWh_e at COP 3"},{"label":"Global PV installed in 2025","value":"about 698","unit":"GW","basis":"reported","sources":["src-iea-pvps2026"],"id":"EN25","context":"Estimate; cumulative nearly 3 TW end-2025 (IEA PVPS Snapshot 2026 report page)"},{"label":"Residential standalone BESS LCOS 2025 (6 kW / 4 h, unsubsidized)","value":"547-860","unit":"USD/MWh","basis":"reported","sources":["src-lazard2025-pdf"],"id":"EN26","context":"About 4-5x utility-scale 4 h LCOS (115-254): home-scale stored kWh are expensive, which supports shifting loads into PV hours rather than through the battery"},{"id":"NG-08","label":"2018 IFC lithium/sodium ESS threshold triggering ESS provisions","value":20,"unit":"kWh","basis":"reported","context":"Lead-acid/NiCd 70 kWh; other 10 kWh; 2018 IRC (RB171-16): battery systems > 1 kWh must be UL 9540 listed and may not be installed in habitable space","sources":["src-nicolello-ess"]},{"id":"NG-09","label":"NFPA 855 (2020) aggregate ESS limits in dwellings","value":"40 (utility closets) / 80 (garages, outdoors)","unit":"kWh","basis":"reported","context":"UNVERIFIED: search snippets only; must be read from NFPA 855 / IRC R328 before design freeze. A 4-person ORIJO home with 1-2 days of LFP (about 15-30 kWh) plus a sodium locker sits near these caps","sources":["src-nfpa855-snippet"]}],"failures":[{"what":"Plenty (Chapter 11 March 2025, equity cancelled; emerged May 2025 as a smaller strawberry grower), Bowery (ceased operations Nov 2024, ABC process), Jones Food Company (administration April 2025)","why":"Electric-light food at 10-18 kWh/kg priced against field produce; rising energy and operating costs (Plenty explicitly cited California energy costs); debt-funded scale before unit economics; Jones Food was 100% renewable-powered and still unprofitable.","lesson_for_anyground":"Never size LED cassettes to the commodity lettuce market. Daylight vaults first, LED cassettes only for remote-premium crops, and schedule lighting to PV hours so a farm kWh costs PV LCOE, not battery LCOS."},{"what":"Natron Energy sodium-ion (ceased operations Sept 2025)","why":"Funding and commercialisation challenges despite a new $40 M plant.","lesson_for_anyground":"Dual-source every chemistry; keep the DENCHI cabinet chemistry-agnostic at 48 V with a standard CAN/BMS interface."},{"what":"Ambri liquid-metal battery (Chapter 11 May 2024; emerged Aug 2024 under lender ownership)","why":"High-temperature novel chemistry needed a costly factory before revenue; fundraising environment tightened.","lesson_for_anyground":"Buy storage that is already a commodity; innovate in integration, folding and control, not cell chemistry."},{"what":"Elevated agrivoltaics over wheat (Belgium 2022-2023)","why":"Cereal yield fell 33-46%; LER dipped to 0.97 in 2023; construction compacted soil.","lesson_for_anyground":"Put PV where it does not shade staple crops: vertical fences, vault ridges, deck canopies; keep heavy machinery off growing beds during unfolding."},{"what":"Small wind performance gaps (Scoraig trials, many urban rooftops)","why":"Field output deviates from claimed power curves; turbulence and siting dominate.","lesson_for_anyground":"Wind on KRES-7 only after 3-6 months of mast anemometry; never in the baseline sizing."},{"what":"Diesel-dependent polar stations (Showa, Canadian Arctic communities)","why":"Reliability culture and winter darkness keep diesel as primary; renewable integration is incremental.","lesson_for_anyground":"At > 66 deg latitude, plan a winter fuel or biomass backup and heat storage honestly; publish the diesel hours as a KPI rather than claiming zero."},{"what":"Seasonal hydrogen in homes","why":"Round trip roughly a third (textbook range, not sourced here), high capex and maintenance; few homes outside demonstrations.","lesson_for_anyground":"Treat H2 as an option for KITA research stations only; the default seasonal store is oversized PV + thermal + demand ladder."}],"interfaces":[{"with_layer":"water","exchange":"kWh (pumps, UV, RO at ~2-4 kWh/m3 small-scale, greywater recycler), heat (sorption regeneration from heat-pump reject or PV-T), data","design_rule":"Recycle first: per person 100 L/day recycled or RO costs < 0.5 kWh/day, while the same from AWH would cost 2-500 kWh/day; reserve AWH for the drinking residual and drive it with waste heat."},{"with_layer":"grow","exchange":"kWh for LEDs/fans/pumps (one HATA-4 cassette = 14-19 kWh/day), heat and CO2, dehumidification water back to water layer","design_rule":"Photoperiod follows the sun: run LEDs in PV hours, keep the dark period at night; daylight vaults before LED cassettes; cap cassettes at what the array covers in the design month."},{"with_layer":"build","exchange":"Robot charging (TSURU dock on 48 V), crane/fold actuator power peaks, envelope U-values that set heat load","design_rule":"Unfolding loads draw from a dedicated pre-charged buffer so commissioning does not drain life-safety storage; envelope first, PV second."},{"with_layer":"care","exchange":"Heat to people (kotatsu, radiant floor), hot water, comfort data","design_rule":"Heat the person, not the air: personal radiant devices before space heating, protected by a reserved SOC floor for medical and comms."},{"with_layer":"loop","exchange":"Biogas or larvae-digester heat, compost heat, waste-heat cascade","design_rule":"Every exothermic loop (digesters, compressors, LEDs) dumps into the KURA hydronic tank before venting."},{"with_layer":"mind","exchange":"Telemetry (MQTT), forecasts, MPC set-points, digital-twin residuals","design_rule":"Local-first: the site must keep its priority ladder with cloud and controller both down (voltage-droop fallback)."},{"with_layer":"structure","exchange":"PV mounting on Miura wings and BYOBU fences, cable routes in floor cassettes, ballast for battery mass","design_rule":"Every fold carries its own DC harness through the hinge with a strain-relieved service loop; battery mass sits on ASHI pads, not on floor cassettes."}],"autonomy_ladder":[{"level":"L0","description":"Diesel genset plus manual switching; occupants refuel and reset","human_minutes_per_week":180,"enabling_tech":"Generator, fuel logistics"},{"level":"L1","description":"PV + battery with commodity inverter-charger; humans monitor SOC and shed loads by hand","human_minutes_per_week":60,"enabling_tech":"LFP, MPPT, Victron-class gear"},{"level":"L2","description":"Rule-based priority ladder and remote telemetry; heat-pump tank absorbs surplus automatically","human_minutes_per_week":20,"enabling_tech":"Venus OS / Home Assistant, CO2 heat pump, MQTT over satellite"},{"level":"L3","description":"Forecast-driven MPC across battery, tank, farm lighting and laundry; fleet digital twin flags degradation","human_minutes_per_week":8,"enabling_tech":"Weather API, grey-box models, MPC solver on edge computer"},{"level":"L4","description":"Self-diagnosing site: voltage-droop hardware fallback, robot cleans arrays and swaps faulty modules on the jo grid","human_minutes_per_week":3,"enabling_tech":"TSURU service robot, hot-swappable 48 V modules, solid-state breakers"},{"level":"L5","description":"Fleet-level learning re-sizes and re-provisions sites (ships extra wing or battery before winter) without human planning; lunar variant runs unattended through the night","human_minutes_per_week":1,"enabling_tech":"Fleet RL tuning, predictive logistics, source-agnostic power brick (PV or fission)"}],"orijo_design":{"recommended_stack":[{"subsystem":"Generation","choice":"MIURA-W rigid fold-out wings + BYOBU-PV vertical bifacial fences; wind/hydro only after site measurement","why":"Commodity c-Si at a fraction of storage cost; fences add morning/evening and snow-season yield and LER >= 1 where farmed."},{"subsystem":"Daily storage","choice":"DENCHI-B: LFP 20-40 kWh inside + 2-5 kWh sodium-ion in unheated locker","why":"LFP is $70/kWh at pack level (2025); Na-ion claims > 90% capacity at -40 C for keep-alive loads."},{"subsystem":"Heat bank","choice":"CO2 heat pump into 300-500 L stratified tank (14-23 kWh_th); optional sand hearth at cold sites","why":"Thermal kWh are far cheaper than electrochemical kWh and most habitat demand is heat."},{"subsystem":"Seasonal","choice":"Oversize PV and curtail into heat; fuel/biomass backup above the Arctic Circle; no hydrogen by default","why":"LDES only pays below ~$20/kWh; no home-scale product meets it today."},{"subsystem":"Distribution","choice":"48-60 V DC spine in floor cassettes; 380 V DC island for hotel kitchens and compressors; solid-state breakers","why":"Fewer conversions (6-8% better PV use) and voltage-droop priority that works without software."},{"subsystem":"Control","choice":"Rule ladder (L2) at launch, MPC (L3) after 12 months of fleet data; RL only for parameter tuning","why":"Field evidence for RL is thin; MPC is well studied; ladder guarantees life safety."}],"new_mechanisms_or_modules":[{"name":"HIKARI-DOKI (photoperiod-to-sun scheduler)","what":"Farm-lighting controller that shifts the LED photoperiod into PV hours and treats lighting as the largest deferrable load","how_it_works":"Each HATA cassette receives a daily light-integral target (mol/m2/day) instead of a clock schedule. The MPC fills the target first from daylight (vault glazing), then from LEDs during PV surplus, and only then from battery, with a hard rule that the dark period stays continuous. Because lighting dominates vertical-farm electricity, moving it into sun hours cuts the battery energy that cassettes need overnight to pumps and fans only.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"One HATA-4 cassette on a 6 kWp PV + 15 kWh LFP test bench with DLI sensors and MPC on a Raspberry-Pi-class edge computer","bom_usd":"18,000-30,000 (estimate; bench PV, LFP, LED fixtures, sensors)","test":"A/B against fixed 16 h night-weighted schedule over two 5-week lettuce cycles","pass":"Battery throughput attributable to the cassette falls >= 50% with fresh-weight yield within 10% of control","kill":"Yield loss > 15% or tipburn/bolting incidence doubles"}},{"name":"DENATSU-ROPE (voltage-rope priority ladder)","what":"Hardware priority ladder: every JO-PORT has its own bus-voltage shed and restore thresholds","how_it_works":"The 48-60 V bus voltage is a public signal of storage state. Each port's point-of-load converter carries a fixed threshold pair (e.g. comfort sheds at 49.5 V, farm at 48.5 V, water at 47.5 V, life safety never) with hysteresis, so the ladder holds even if the MPC computer, network and cloud are down - the karakuri principle applied to electricity. Software only moves thresholds within safe bands.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"Six programmable DC-DC port modules on a 48 V bench bus with LFP + electronic load emulating KURA, HATA, MIZU, comms","bom_usd":"3,000-6,000 (estimate)","test":"Drain storage under scripted loads with controller unplugged; inject faults (short, sensor loss)","pass":"Shed order correct in 100% of 200 trials; no oscillation; life-safety port uninterrupted","kill":"Chatter or mis-ordering that cannot be fixed with hysteresis within 6 months"}},{"name":"IRORI-KURA tank (heat-pump heat bank with reject-heat cascade)","what":"500 L stratified tank fed by CO2 heat pump, LED/compressor reject heat and sorption-AWH regeneration loop","how_it_works":"Top of the tank is held at 60-65 C for DHW; the middle feeds radiant floors and kotatsu; the cold bottom accepts low-grade reject heat (LED drivers, larvae digester, fridge condensers) and pre-heats the AWH sorbent bed. Surplus PV runs the heat pump first, so heat demand becomes the habitat's cheapest storage.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"Instrumented 500 L tank + air-to-water CO2 heat pump + 2 kW reject-heat loop on the bench","bom_usd":"8,000-15,000 (estimate)","test":"Cold-chamber runs at +10, -10, -25 C ambient; measure seasonal COP and stratification","pass":"Delivered heat >= 2.5x PV electricity at -10 C; DHW at 55 C+ available 99% of hours","kill":"Seasonal COP < 2 at the target climates"}},{"name":"BYOBU-MAKI (fence-wing pair)","what":"Configurator rule pairing south-tilted MIURA wings with E-W vertical bifacial BYOBU fences to flatten daily and winter output","how_it_works":"Wings dominate noon and summer; fences dominate morning/evening and snow-albedo days. The configurator picks the mix per latitude to minimise battery kWh for a given LOLP, using hourly simulation rather than rule-of-thumb autonomy days.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"2 kWp wing + 2 kWp fence test rig at two climates with separate MPPT logging","bom_usd":"6,000-10,000 per site (estimate)","test":"12-month logging; feed into LOLP simulator","pass":"Fence lowers required battery kWh by >= 15% at the cold site for equal LOLP","kill":"< 5% battery reduction"}}],"sizing_reference":{"formulae":"PV_kWp = E_day / (PSH_design x PR); C_bat_kWh = A x E_firm / (DoD x eta_bat); Q_tank = V x 1.163 x dT (Wh). PR 0.75, DoD 0.9, eta_bat 0.95 assumed (calculated, not sourced).","home_4p":{"loads_kwh_day":{"plug_light_cook_comms_HRV":"5 (assumed, DC appliances)","DHW_heat_pump":"3.5 (calculated EN24, COP 3)","space_heat_temperate_winter_avg":"5 (assumed; 0 in desert summer, 15+ arctic)","water_recycler_and_pumps":"1 (assumed)","total_firm_plus_heat":14.5},"pv":"14.5 / (4 PSH x 0.75) = 4.8 kWp; at a 1.5 PSH winter month = 12.9 kWp -> MIURA-W 4.5 + BYOBU 4 kWp covers temperate shoulder seasons, not mid-winter at 50 N","battery":"2 days x 10 kWh firm (excluding deferrable heat) / (0.9 x 0.95) = 23 kWh -> DENCHI-B 20-40 kWh","heat_tank":"300-500 L = 14-23 kWh_th, roughly 1.3-2 days of DHW","basis":"calculated from assumed loads; validate with hourly LOLP per site"},"hotel_6key":{"loads_kwh_day":{"per_occupied_key_incl_DHW":"8 (assumed)","six_keys":48,"two_KURA_cores":"7.2 (v3 target 150 W each)","lounge_HVAC_kitchen":"8 (assumed)","one_HATA_cassette":"14.4-19.2 (v3)","total":"about 78-82"},"pv":"80 / (4 x 0.75) = 26.7 kWp needed vs about 17 kWp in v3 T2 default (2 MIURA-W + 2 BYOBU-PV) -> add 2 wings or 1 more fence pair, or drop the cassette at low-sun sites","battery":"1 day of firm load (~50 kWh) / 0.855 = 58 kWh -> 3 DENCHI-B (60-120 kWh) is consistent","basis":"calculated; occupancy-weighted, so the controller should pre-heat tanks on check-in forecasts"},"farm_module":{"loads_kwh_day":{"per_HATA4_cassette":"14.4-19.2 (600-800 W avg, v3)"},"output":"6.1-8.9 kg/week per cassette (v3) -> about 11-22 kWh/kg (calculated: 100.8-134.4 kWh/week / 6.1-8.9 kg/week; central about 15), overlapping and at the top end exceeding the 10-18 kWh/kg literature range (EN01)","pv":"17 / (4 x 0.75) = 5.7 kWp per cassette (desert PSH 6: 3.8 kWp; winter 50 N PSH 1.5: 15 kWp)","battery":"With HIKARI-DOKI scheduling, night load is pumps/fans only; assume 30% of daily energy at night -> 17 x 0.3 / 0.855 = 6 kWh per cassette vs 20 kWh without shifting (calculated, assumption to be tested)","basis":"calculated from v3 targets; lighting share at night is an assumption"}}},"open_problems":["No small-format LDES product near $20/kWh: the winter deficit at > 50 deg latitude still needs fuel, biomass or grid.","Certified 48-60 V DC appliances (induction hob, washer, CO2 heat pump) are scarce; inspectors lack DC residential codes.","Long-term field data for sodium-ion in outdoor cold lockers (calendar ageing, BMS behaviour at -40 C) are thin and vendor survival is uncertain.","Vertical-farm electricity per kg must fall toward the 3-7 kWh/kg benchmark before LED cassettes make sense outside remote-premium sites.","Hinge-routed DC harnesses on fold-out arrays: fatigue life over thousands of fold cycles and wind gusts is not characterised.","PDRC durability (dust, dew, UV) and seasonal switching in real buildings remain unproven at scale.","RL controllers lack safety certification paths; MPC needs per-site calibration that must be automated across a fleet.","Lunar night (about 14 Earth days) without fission still forces heavy regenerative fuel cells or batteries; fission timeline depends on policy.","Several numbers here (Lazard LCOS, IEA PVPS totals) were taken from search snippets, and several landmark papers (Graamans 2018, Raman 2014, Puranen 2021) were not read beyond metadata.","Residential ESS aggregate caps (NFPA 855 / IRC R328, about 40-80 kWh by location, unverified) bound how much storage a single home may hold. [gaps-2026-10-29]"],"sources":[{"id":"src-miserocchi2024","title":"Miserocchi & Franco (2024) Benchmarking energy efficiency in vertical farming: Status and prospects, Thermal Sci. Eng. Prog. 58:103165","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2024.103165","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-pennisi2025","title":"Pennisi, Gianquinto, Marcelis, Martin, Orsini (2025) Vertical farming: productivity, environmental impact, and resource use. A review, Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45:57","url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01055-w","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-stanghellini2024","title":"Stanghellini & Katzin (2024) The dark side of lighting: a critical analysis of vertical farms' environmental impact, J. Clean. Prod. 458:142359","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142359","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-mills2025","title":"Mills (2025) The emergence of indoor agriculture as a driver of global energy demand, npj Sustainable Agriculture 3","url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s44264-025-00091-z","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-ceccanti2026","title":"Ceccanti, Bischi, Antonelli, Baccioli (2026) Can sunlight replace LEDs in vertical farms? arXiv:2607.24385","url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.24385","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-graamans2018","title":"Graamans, Baeza, van den Dobbelsteen, Tsafaras, Stanghellini (2018) Plant factories versus greenhouses: comparison of resource use efficiency, Agric. Syst. 160:31-43 (metadata only; abstract not retrieved)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.11.003","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-engler2021","title":"Engler & Krarti (2021) Review of energy efficiency in controlled environment agriculture, RSER (Scholar snippet)","url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032121000812","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-reher2024","title":"Reher et al. (2024) Potential of sugar beet and wheat production in vertical bifacial, tracked, or elevated agrivoltaic systems in Belgium, Applied Energy 359:122679","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122679","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-fraunhofer2019","title":"Fraunhofer ISE press release (2019) Agrophotovoltaics: high harvesting yield in hot summer of 2018 (Heggelbach)","url":"https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/press-media/press-releases/2019/agrophotovoltaics-hight-harvesting-yield-in-hot-summer-of-2018.html","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-trommsdorff2021","title":"Trommsdorff et al. (2021) Combining food and energy production: design of an agrivoltaic system applied in arable and vegetable farming in Germany, RSER 140:110694 (metadata only)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110694","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-next2sun","title":"Next2Sun vertical bifacial agri-PV product site","url":"https://www.next2sun.com/en/","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-fregosi2015","title":"Fregosi et al. (2015) A comparative study of DC and AC microgrids in commercial buildings across different climates and operating profiles, IEEE ICDCM","url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDCM.2015.7152031","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-currentos","title":"Current/OS Foundation website (DC microgrid set of rules, reference projects)","url":"https://currentos.org/","type":"standard","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-emerge","title":"EMerge Alliance standards page","url":"https://www.emergealliance.org/standards/","type":"standard","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-gridtechpedia","title":"INL GridTechPedia: DC microgrids (Google snippet: TRL 7)","url":"https://gridtechpedia.inl.gov/technology/dc-","type":"agency","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-sepulveda2021","title":"Sepulveda, Jenkins, Edington, Mallapragada, Lester (2021) The design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonized power systems, Nature Energy 6:506-516","url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00796-8","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-bnef2025","title":"BloombergNEF (2025) Lithium-ion battery pack prices fall to $108 per kilowatt-hour","url":"https://about.bnef.com/insights/commodities/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-fall-to-108-per-kilowatt-hour-despite-rising-metal-prices-bloombergnef/","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-lazard2025","title":"RTO Insider (2025-06-17) Lazard: Solar and Wind Retain Lowest LCOEs (search snippet carried the LCOS range; article body fetched did not) (superseded by src-lazard2025-pdf)","url":"https://www.rtoinsider.com/108308-lazard-solar-wind-retain-lowest-lcoes/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-form-latitude2025","title":"Latitude Media (2025-10-29) Form's first 100-hour batteries are hitting the grid","url":"https://www.latitudemedia.com/news/forms-first-100-hour-batteries-are-hitting-the-grid/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-form-wiki","title":"Wikipedia: Form Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_Energy","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-pne-newatlas2025","title":"New Atlas (2025-08-27) The world's largest sand battery just went live in Finland","url":"https://newatlas.com/energy/largest-sand-battery-finland-pornainen/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-pne-essnews2025","title":"ESS News (2025-11-25) Finland's Polar Night to build 250 MWh sand battery for district heating provider","url":"https://www.ess-news.com/2025/11/25/finlands-polar-night-to-build-250-mwh-sand-battery-for-district-heating-provider/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-pne-ie2026","title":"Interesting Engineering (2026-04-28) The world's largest sand battery just survived its worst-case winter","url":"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/sand-battery-polar-night-energy","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-rondo-pvmag2025","title":"pv magazine (2025-10-21) Rondo Energy's 100 MWh heat battery powered by 20 MW of onsite solar","url":"https://www.pv-magazine.com/2025/10/21/rondo-energys-100-mwh-heat-battery-powered-by-20-mw-of-onsite-solar/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-antora-news2026","title":"Mercom (2026-07-31) Thermal battery company Antora Energy raises $550 million (Series C)","url":"https://mercomcapital.com/thermal-battery-company-antora-energy-raises-550-million/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-catl-newatlas2026","title":"New Atlas (2026-04-28) Production EV packing sub-zero-operation sodium-ion batteries on its way (CATL Naxtra)","url":"https://newatlas.com/automotive/catl-naxtra-sodium-ion-changan-nevo-a06/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-sodium-wiki","title":"Wikipedia: Sodium-ion battery (CATL, Faradion 0 V shipping, Natron closure, IRENA cost projection)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery","type":"company","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-peak-pvmag2026","title":"pv magazine USA (2026-07-13) Peak Energy to build 4 GWh grid-scale sodium-ion BESS factory in California","url":"https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2026/07/13/peak-energy-to-build-4-gwh-grid-scale-sodium-ion-bess-factory-in-california/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-carter2025","title":"Carter et al. 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One serp query (Ambri 2026); energy serp budget now exhausted (48/48).","checked":22,"confirmed":16,"confirmed_items":["EN01/EN02 Miserocchi & Franco 2024: 10-18 kWh/kg, 850-1150 kWh/m2/yr, benchmark 3.1-7.4 kWh/kg (abstract via OpenAlex)","EN03/EN04/PA02 Pennisi et al. 2025: 60-105 kg FW/m2/yr, 0.08-0.13 kg FW/kWh, 2.9 kg CO2/kg FW (abstract)","EN06/PA05 Ceccanti et al. arXiv:2607.24385 (27 Jul 2026) exists; ~50% saving, min 3.16 kWh/kg, 19-27% fibre efficiency","EN07 BNEF 2025: stationary $70/kWh (-45%), average $108/kWh (-8%), LFP $81/kWh","EN09/PA10 Sepulveda et al. 2021 Nature Energy: <= $20/kWh for >= 10% cost cut, <= $1/kWh for full firm displacement","EN10/P04 Form Energy: first commercial units Oct 2025 (Great River Energy), 100 h, > $1.2 bn raised; Xcel 2 x 10 MW / 100 h","EN12/P02/P03 Polar Night Energy: Pornainen 1 MW / 100 MWh, ~2000 t soapstone; Lahti/Vaaksy 2 MW / 250 MWh, ~2400 t sand, > 500 C, completion summer 2027; winter results (wood chips -60%, emissions -70%, oil boiler never ran)","EN14/P07 CATL Naxtra 175 Wh/kg, > 90% at -40 C (claimed)","EN15/PA09 Fregosi et al. 2015: DC uses PV 6-8% more efficiently (simulation)","EN16/P13 Heggelbach: LUE 160% (2017) / 186% (2018), 194 kWp, 1285.3 kWh/kWp, celery +12%, clover -8%","EN17/PA07 Reher et al. 2024: vertical LER 1.00/1.18, tracked 1.17/1.22, wheat -33%/-46%, LER 1.09/0.97","EN18/PA11 KRUSTY: 28 h, 1.5-5.0 kWt, 880 C, ~90 We per 80 We Stirling, ~25% system efficiency","EN19/EN20/P12 FSP 40 kWe, 10 yr, < 6000 kg, < 5 rem/yr at 1 km, three $5 M Phase 1 awards 2022; Aug 2025 directive >= 100 kW, launch-ready late 2029 (Sci Am)","EN21 PDRC ~100-150 W/m2, tropical 10-40 W/m2 (Wikipedia review)","EN22/PA17 Penate-Suarez et al. 2026: 1.794 kWh/m3 at 40% recovery, Feb 2025","EN23/PA16 Brenes & Chini 2023: 0.02-3.64 and 3.19-5.29 kWh/L (abstract); PA04 Mills 2025 and PA14 Li et al. 2020 abstracts also match; P08 Peak Energy, P09 Natron (ceased 3 Sept 2025), P16 Vinci Wave 20% (claimed), P20 SkyCool Ft Moore report (no savings figures), P23 Jones Food (14,500 m2, renewable-only, administration Apr 2025, never profitable), P01 Princess Elisabeth (16 scientists, lead-acid, backup generators) confirmed"],"corrected":[{"item":"EN05 / orijo_design farm_module output: HATA-4 implied specific energy","was":"about 15-16.5 kWh/kg, 'inside' the 10-18 literature range","now":"about 11-22 kWh/kg (central about 15), overlapping and at the top end exceeding 10-18","source":"src-v3-concept (calculation 100.8-134.4 kWh/week / 6.1-8.9 kg/week; v3 states 11-22)"},{"item":"EN08 Lazard 2025 LCOS 115-254 USD/MWh","was":"search-snippet only, primary not read (src-lazard2025)","now":"confirmed from Lazard LCOE+ June 2025 PDF p.19 (utility-scale standalone 100 MW / 4 h, unsubsidized); residential 547-860 USD/MWh added as EN26","source":"src-lazard2025-pdf"},{"item":"P10 Ambri status","was":"failed; 'assets sold to lenders'","now":"restructured: Chapter 11 May 2024, 363 sale to lender consortium, emerged Aug 2024; 2026 status not confirmed","source":"src-ambri-pvmag2024"},{"item":"P21 Plenty status","was":"failed","now":"restructured: Chapter 11 23 Mar 2025, equity cancelled, plan effective 29 May 2025; continues with Richmond VA strawberry farm","source":"src-plenty-elevenflo"},{"item":"Space fission (Kilopower/FSP) maturity","was":"PILOT, TRL 5","now":"EXPERIMENTAL, TRL 5 (single ground prototype test; no flight unit)","source":"src-krusty2020"},{"item":"Thesis wording 'vertical-farm bankruptcies (Plenty, Bowery, Jones Food)'","was":"bankruptcies","now":"insolvencies (Plenty Chapter 11, Bowery shutdown/ABC, Jones Food administration)","source":"src-plenty-elevenflo, src-bowery-yahoo, src-vf-wiki"},{"item":"EN12 Pornainen temperatures","was":"attributed only to src-pne-essnews2025, which does not state temperatures","now":"temperatures sourced to src-pne-ie2026","source":"src-pne-ie2026"},{"item":"EN25 IEA PVPS 698 GW","was":"Google snippet, homepage URL","now":"confirmed on Snapshot 2026 report page (estimate; cumulative nearly 3 TW)","source":"src-iea-pvps2026"},{"item":"P06 Antora $550 M","was":"headline only, read_primary false","now":"confirmed Series C 31 Jul 2026, with company-reported 5 GWh South Dakota system","source":"src-antora-news2026"},{"item":"Fold-out container PV key number 40-160 kWp","was":"'foldable PV container range' from snippet","now":"HighJoule portfolio range; only the HJFoldSolar model is described as foldable","source":"src-mobilesolarcontainer"},{"item":"P24 DESALRO 2.0 capacity","was":"2,500-5,000 m3/day plant","now":"2,500 m3/day plant; design scaled to 5,000 m3/day","source":"src-penate2026"}],"removed":[],"unverifiable":["EN11 sand-battery round-trip 80-90%: company figure relayed by press; no independent measurement found","Rondo RTE > 97% and daily automatic operation (company claim via pv magazine)","Ambri, Heggelbach and Rondo operating status in 2026 (no 2026 primary source found; energy serp budget exhausted)","src-gridtechpedia 'DC microgrids TRL 7' (Google snippet; URL truncated, not opened)","Hydrogen home systems 'several commercial products' and ~1/3 round trip (textbook, unsourced; flagged in file)","Scoraig 'up to 156%' (PA18), Elicit-only records PA19-PA28, patents and YouTube sources were not re-opened in this pass","CATL Naxtra vehicle deliveries (announced for mid-2026; delivery not confirmed)"],"internal_consistency":"Every source id referenced in numbers/projects/options exists (78 sources). 25 sources are bibliography-only (cited by papers[] via DOI or by text, not by id), incl. superseded src-lazard2025; acceptable but not cross-linked. Formulas recomputed: 300 L x 1.163 x 40 K = 13.96 kWh_th; 500 L = 23.3 kWh_th; DHW 200 L x 1.163 x 45 K = 10.47 kWh_th (3.5 kWh_e at COP 3); 40,000 W / 6,000 kg = 6.7 W/kg; AWG 20-5,290 kWh/m3 = 11-2,950x the 1.794 kWh/m3 SWRO record. Only EN05 was mis-stated (narrowed range).","verdict":"Largely sound. No fabricated DOIs or sources found among those checked; all opened paper DOIs resolve to the stated titles/authors and the headline numbers match abstracts. Main defects were overstated failure statuses (Ambri and Plenty restructured rather than gone), one narrowed self-calculated range (EN05), one maturity overstatement (space fission), and several numbers previously resting on search snippets that are now confirmed from primary pages (Lazard LCOS, IEA PVPS, Antora)."},"certification":[{"id":"C-E1","regime":"UL 9540 / UL 9540A, IFC and IRC battery provisions, NFPA 855","jurisdiction":"USA","status":"in force; editions vary by jurisdiction","applies_to":"Stationary battery systems in dwellings","requirement":"2018 IRC: systems > 1 kWh UL 9540 listed, not in habitable space; 2018 IFC Li/Na threshold 20 kWh; NFPA 855 (2020) aggregate 40/80 kWh by location (unverified)","implication_for_orijo":"DENCHI-B lockers sit outside the habitable volume (wing or plinth bay), are UL 9540 listed, and the per-home kWh total is a design constraint, not only a cost choice.","sources":["src-nicolello-ess","src-nfpa855-snippet"]}],"revision_log":[{"date":"2026-10-29","by":"gaps-2026-10-29","change":"Added certification paths, new sources/numbers/papers/projects from the completeness-critic pass; see research/v4/gaps-log.md"}]}