{"key":"build","title":"Robots that construct","kanji":"建","one_line":"Factories fabricate, robots mark and anchor, shells unfold themselves under closed-loop control; humans only approve gates.","thesis":"Fully automated construction is not a robot laying every brick on site. The factory does the work, the package carries the complexity, and the site needs only three narrow robotic acts: mark, anchor, unfold. The evidence splits cleanly. Narrow, repetitive, digitally specified tasks are commercial and measurably better (layout -68% labour hours, solar piling about 3x, drywall finish -34% cycle), while generalist on-site fabricators remain research and capital-heavy builders failed (Katerra >USD 2B, Veev USD 600M). Self-erecting enclosures work physically (BEAM, LIFE at +27% burst margin, Boxabl under 1 h on site), but Boxabl's 744 built vs 285 delivered shows the real bottleneck is anchoring, permission and siting, not the fold. The non-obvious insight for ORIJO: unfolding a 2.2 t shell needs only about 0.005 kWh of potential energy, so the hard parts are control, sensing and stiction, not power. FBR's two-loop boom compensation and NASA's structure-relative robot metrology can be borrowed directly to make unfolding closed-loop, and the 910 mm grid becomes the robot's coordinate system.","subsystems":[{"id":"BUILD-S1","name":"Off-site micro-factory (fabricate)","function":"Turn configurator output into CNC-cut, laminated, wired and tested panels or modules, close to demand and with little capital.","how_it_works":"Standard industrial arms work inside fixtures: magnet or vacuum fixturing indexes studs and sheets, and a vision system checks pose before nailing, screwing or gluing, so the robot never has to 'understand' a building, only a panel in a jig. Adhesive work is scheduled against open time with torque-controlled pressing and logged QA (Huang 2026). Panels are the unit of automation; volumetric assembly with gantries follows later (Reframe expects that step 3-4 years out). The factory is designed to move: AUAR ships its cells in containers, Cuby deploys a mobile factory on about three acres. Throughput is set by the slowest manual step (MEP, windows, finishing), not the robot cycle time.","options":[{"name":"Containerised robotic micro-factory (AUAR, Reframe FAB1, Cuby)","principle":"Off-the-shelf arms + fixtures in a leased shed or containers; panels for timber or light-steel homes; hardware-as-a-service or franchise","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Several sites producing real homes (Reframe 10 completed, 8 occupied); throughput claims not yet shown at full rate.","key_numbers":[{"label":"AUAR output per micro-factory","value":"up to 180","unit":"homes/yr","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-auar-trr"]},{"label":"Reframe FAB1 capacity","value":"up to 500 multifamily units or 250 single-family homes","unit":"per yr","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-reframe-trr26"]},{"label":"Reframe FAB1 equipment cost","value":"<5","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-reframe-trr26"]},{"label":"Cuby factory deploy cost","value":"about 10","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-cuby-hw24"]},{"label":"Cuby time from contract to operating factory","value":"12","unit":"months","basis":"reported","sources":["src-cuby-hw23"]}],"best_for":"E1, E2, E7 regional hubs within trucking distance; ORIJO licensee factories","limits":"Volumes unproven; MEP and finishing still manual; state factory-built certification per plant."},{"name":"Automated framing / truss and wall-panel cells (BotBuilt, House of Design)","principle":"Reprogrammable robots nail and assemble framing panels and trusses for production builders","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Robots sell into truss and panel plants; BotBuilt had built framing for 9 homes by late 2023 with a 2,000-unit pipeline.","key_numbers":[{"label":"BotBuilt robot operating cost","value":"about 1","unit":"USD/h","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-botbuilt-tc"]},{"label":"Typical US framing cost incl. labour","value":"7-16 (labour 4-10)","unit":"USD/sq ft","basis":"reported","sources":["src-botbuilt-tc"]}],"best_for":"Panelised conventional homes; ORIJO floor cassettes (MUTO-D)","limits":"Only the frame is automated; the frame is a minor share of total house cost."},{"name":"Large volumetric modular factory (Katerra, Veev, Factory OS)","principle":"Fixed high-capex plants that build finished volumetric modules or proprietary panel systems, often vertically integrated","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Technically proven (Factory OS/Harbinger reports about 4,000 units), but repeated financial failure (Katerra, Veev; Harbinger WARN notice Feb 2026).","key_numbers":[{"label":"Katerra capital raised before Chapter 11 (June 2021)","value":">2,000","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-katerra-cd"]},{"label":"Veev capital raised before shutdown (Nov 2023)","value":"600","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-veev-tc"]},{"label":"Factory OS / Harbinger units built since 2017","value":"3,000-4,000","unit":"units","basis":"reported","sources":["src-factoryos-vs"]}],"best_for":"Dense urban multifamily with a steady public pipeline","limits":"Plant utilisation risk; one funding gap closes the plant (Harbinger WARN notice for 280 staff, Feb 2026)."},{"name":"Multi-robot timber gluing / assembly cells (ICD Stuttgart)","principle":"Containerised robots glue and torque-press timber slabs; crane plus clamp robots assemble on site","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"Full-scale prototypes in research projects, no product.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Robots per gluing micro-factory","value":"2 (containerised)","unit":"robots","basis":"reported","sources":["p-huang2026"]}],"best_for":"Mass-timber floors; future ORIJO thick panels","limits":"Research hardware and custom joints."}]},{"id":"BUILD-S2","name":"Site survey, layout and digital datum","function":"Put the digital model onto the ground: points for piles and legs, slab and fit-out layout, and a datum that later robots reuse.","how_it_works":"A drone photogrammetry or LiDAR survey gives the terrain model. A wheeled layout robot then localises against a robotic total station or RTK-GNSS and prints or stakes points straight from BIM. Accuracy comes from the external instrument and closed-loop pose correction, not from the base. That is why a small robot can hold 1/16 in (about 1.6 mm) indoors on a slab and about 8-9 mm (3/100 ft, vendor claim) outdoors on earth. The output is both marks and a logged as-built point set that seeds the structure's digital twin.","options":[{"name":"Indoor printing layout robot (Dusty FieldPrinter)","principle":"Total-station-tracked mobile printer draws the full-scale layout on the deck","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Peer-reviewed field comparison on an 8-floor building; widely deployed.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Labour-hour reduction vs manual layout","value":"68","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["p-kam2025"]},{"label":"Rework","value":"6.42 -> 0.25","unit":"%","basis":"measured","sources":["p-kam2025"]},{"label":"Stated accuracy","value":"1/16 (about 1.6)","unit":"in (mm)","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-dusty-site"]}],"best_for":"KURA factory floor, slab or deck pads, rooftop E1","limits":"Needs a flat printable surface and line of sight to the total station."},{"name":"Outdoor staking robot (Civ Robotics CivDot+)","principle":"RTK/laser-guided rover marks coordinates for solar piles and earthworks","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Sold into utility-scale solar and earthworks.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Marking precision","value":"3/100 ft (vendor: 8 mm; about 9.1 mm by conversion)","unit":"ft","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-civ-site"]},{"label":"Speed vs manual","value":"8x","unit":"ratio","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-civ-site"]}],"best_for":"E2, E3, E5, E7 pile points for ASHI legs","limits":"GNSS shading under forest canopy (E2) and in steep terrain."}]},{"id":"BUILD-S3","name":"Earthworks and anchoring (the most under-automated step)","function":"Prepare ground and install foundations (piles, screw anchors, ballast) without trenches or concrete pours.","how_it_works":"Retrofit autonomy kits (LiDAR, cameras, GNSS, a hydraulic valve interface) turn standard excavators into robots; the control stack plans a dig or drive cycle and closes the loop on bucket or hammer pose. Solar piling robots chain survey, pile distribution and driving: a vibratory or impact hammer on an excavator drives W-section piles to grade with sub-centimetre position. Small robots can use their own mass plus vibration to drive posts and sheet piles (Romu). For screw piles the physics is torque: final installation torque correlates with axial capacity, which makes torque logging a built-in proof-load record and makes helical anchors the best fit for robots.","options":[{"name":"Autonomous solar pile driver (Built Robotics RPD 35)","principle":"Excavator-based robot surveys, distributes and drives piles with 7,000 lb hammer at up to 500 impacts/min","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Production use on US and Australian solar sites; Built reports >3 GW of solar installed and 40+ sites (June 2026).","key_numbers":[{"label":"Piles per day, 2-person crew","value":"about 300 vs about 100 conventional","unit":"piles/day","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-rpd-pvmag"]},{"label":"Average time per pile","value":"about 73","unit":"s","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-rpd-pvmag"]},{"label":"Placement accuracy","value":"sub-centimetre","unit":"cm","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-rpd-pvmag"]}],"best_for":"E3, E7 multi-unit sites (farms, hotels); ASHI pile installs if pile spec matches solar sections","limits":"Needs a 15-50 t excavator; driven piles suit soil, not rock or permafrost."},{"name":"Autonomous excavator stack (Built Exosystem, Baidu AES)","principle":"Perception + hierarchical task and motion planning on retrofitted excavators","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"AES ran long real-world operations; Built's Exosystem trenching kit preceded its pivot to solar piling (pivot inferred from product history).","key_numbers":[{"label":"AES autonomy","value":"24","unit":"h per intervention","basis":"measured","sources":["p-zhang2021aes"]},{"label":"AES material per hour","value":"close to experienced operator","unit":"ratio","basis":"measured","sources":["p-zhang2021aes"]}],"best_for":"Site levelling, earth-tube trenches, berms in E3/E7","limits":"Productivity at best equals a human; the value is unattended hours and safety."},{"name":"Small anchoring robot (Romu) / robotic helical-pile driver","principle":"Vibratory hammer + body weight, or hydraulic torque head, on a light tracked base","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"Romu was demonstrated in lab and natural terrain; no commercial robotic helical-pile rig was found in this sweep.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Romu payload types driven","value":"sheet piles, wooden slats, posts","unit":"qualitative","basis":"measured","sources":["p-romu2020"]}],"best_for":"ORIJO ASHI legs on soft soils; erosion check-dams around E3 farms","limits":"Low force; rock, cobbles and frozen ground stop it."}]},{"id":"BUILD-S4","name":"On-site additive and assembly robots","function":"Build walls and enclosures in place (printing, block laying) and finish them (drywall, paint).","how_it_works":"Gantry printers extrude a pumped cementitious mortar along toolpaths at up to 500 mm/s. Each layer must gain green strength before the next one loads it, so buildability, not head speed, sets the vertical rate. Hadrian X moves blocks along a 32 m telescoping boom to a laying head that applies adhesive and places each block. Two control loops cancel boom sway and wind: a slow loop on the boom and a fast loop on the end robot, driven by a 6-DoF laser tracker at at least 250 Hz and preferably 1 kHz. Mobile research platforms (In situ Fabricator, DCP) combine a moving base with a long-reach arm and periodic relocalisation. Finishing robots spray and sand to a scanned surface model.","options":[{"name":"Gantry 3D concrete printing (COBOD BOD2/BOD3, ICON Vulcan/Phoenix/Titan)","principle":"Pumped mortar extruded layer by layer from a gantry or multi-storey crane-like printer","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Hundreds of permitted buildings, but company economics are weak (ICON layoffs, Mighty Buildings sale, Diamond Age liquidation).","key_numbers":[{"label":"BOD2 max print speed","value":"500","unit":"mm/s","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-cobod-bod2"]},{"label":"BOD2 recommended crew","value":"4","unit":"people","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-cobod-bod2"]},{"label":"BOD2 price","value":"from 400,000","unit":"USD","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-cobod-bod2"]},{"label":"Skovsporet print time, last 6-apartment building","value":"5","unit":"days","basis":"reported","sources":["src-skovsporet-na"]}],"best_for":"Plinths, wet-room cores and thermal mass in E3; lunar pads (E8)","limits":"Walls only (roof, MEP, windows manual); reinforcement and coarse aggregate are hard; 4-person crew plus pump logistics."},{"name":"Large-scale block-laying robot (FBR Hadrian X)","principle":"Truck-mounted 32 m boom + dynamically compensated laying head, adhesive-bonded blocks","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"Test builds in Australia and one test home for PulteGroup in Florida (2025); factory acceptance and first sales only from Oct 2025.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Record lay rate","value":">300","unit":"blocks/h (>70 m2 vertical wall/h)","basis":"reported","sources":["src-hadrian-am23"]},{"label":"Effective rate on a 751-block test","value":">285","unit":"blocks/h","basis":"reported","sources":["src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"label":"Sale price","value":"AUD 7,800,000 (about USD 5.09M)","unit":"per robot","basis":"reported","sources":["src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"label":"Tracker data rate","value":">=250 (preferably >=1,000)","unit":"Hz","basis":"reported","sources":["src-hadrian-pat"]}],"best_for":"Masonry markets (AU, US Sun Belt); not ORIJO shells","limits":"Expensive; slab, roof and fit-out remain conventional; about 9 years from patent priority (2016) to factory-acceptance testing of the commercial machine (2025)."},{"name":"Mason-assist robots (Construction Robotics SAM, MULE)","principle":"SAM lays bricks with a mason finishing joints; MULE is a balanced lift arm for heavy blocks","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Sold and used on US jobsites for years.","key_numbers":[{"label":"SAM bricks/day vs mason","value":"800-1,200 vs 300-500","unit":"bricks/day","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-sam-yt"]},{"label":"MULE customer savings","value":"30-50","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-cr-site"]}],"best_for":"Collaborative heavy lifting; lesson for ORIJO: assist, not replace","limits":"Human remains in the loop."},{"name":"Mobile research fabricators (ETH In situ Fabricator, MIT DCP, HEAP)","principle":"Mobile base + long-reach arm with on-board state estimation; printing or assembly at architectural scale","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"Demonstrated at 1:1 in relevant environments, no product.","key_numbers":[{"label":"DCP dome formwork","value":"14.6 m dia x 3.7 m tall in <13.5 h","unit":"m, h","basis":"measured","sources":["p-keating2017"]}],"best_for":"Lunar/remote research; ORIJO anchoring and inspection ideas","limits":"Relocalisation and payload-to-mass ratio; single-purpose tooling."},{"name":"Interior finishing robots (Canvas drywall, Okibo)","principle":"Scan-to-path spraying and sanding of joint compound and paint","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Used by large US contractors (Webcor) with union partnerships.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Level 5 finish cycle time reduction","value":"34","unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-canvas-cd"]},{"label":"Newark Civic Center job","value":"7 days -> 2 days","unit":"days","basis":"reported","sources":["src-canvas-cd"]}],"best_for":"Not needed for ORIJO factory-finished facets","limits":"Only where drywall exists."}]},{"id":"BUILD-S5","name":"Self-erecting deployable shells (fold, lever, inflate)","function":"Turn a road- or rocket-legal package into an enclosed volume on site with minutes-to-hours of actuation and no skilled trades.","how_it_works":"Rigid deployables are linkages. TenFold's patented 5- or 7-bar lever moves the roof first in a near-straight line and then in an arc, while a jack or motor works against gravity counterbalanced by the descending floor panels. Boxabl uses hinged floor, wall and ceiling leaves plus deployment struts with sheaves and lines, so a small winch replaces a crane. Thick-panel origami (Zhu & Filipov) keeps panels uniformly thick and flat-foldable, so one DOF moves a whole roof. Softgoods habitats carry pressure in a woven restraint layer (BEAM, Sierra LIFE) or in meridional cords of an isotensoid (Max Space). The bladder and skin carry no structural load, and the packed state is a flattened stack. The hard parts are the end states: latching, sealing and stiffness after deployment, plus stiction after long packed storage.","options":[{"name":"Lever-linkage self-deploying building (TenFold)","principle":"Multi-bar lever assembly; roof translates then rotates; gravity-assisted","maturity":"PILOT","trl":6,"trl_why":"Full-scale demonstrators shown in videos since about 2015; no verified operational deployments or volume sales in sources read; EP application withdrawn.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Deployment time (marketing video)","value":"about 8","unit":"min","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-tenfold-yt"]},{"label":"Patent priority","value":"2012-09-06","unit":"date","basis":"reported","sources":["src-tenfold-pat"]}],"best_for":"Site offices, pop-up hotel keys (E1, E7)","limits":"Heavy steel linkage; volume ratio limited by box envelope."},{"name":"Fold-out modular home (Boxabl Casita)","principle":"Hinged leaves plus strut/sheave/line erection; road-legal 8.5 ft (102 in) wide package","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":8,"trl_why":"Hundreds installed, but deliveries lag production badly.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Casitas manufactured / delivered (mid-2025)","value":"744 / 285","unit":"units","basis":"reported","sources":["src-boxabl-hw"]},{"label":"On-site assembly time","value":"<1","unit":"h","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-boxabl-bo"]},{"label":"2024 net loss","value":"about 51","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-boxabl-hw","src-boxabl-bo"]},{"label":"Type 1 unfolded footprint","value":"about 11.89 x 5.94 x 2.9","unit":"m","basis":"reported","sources":["src-boxabl-pat"]}],"best_for":"ADU markets; the closest commercial analogue to an ORIJO pack","limits":"Unfolding is fast but foundations, utilities and permits set the real lead time; 459 built units were waiting for delivery."},{"name":"Thick-panel rigid origami (Zhu & Filipov; ORIJO M01/M02)","principle":"Uniformly thick, flat-foldable, developable vertices; modular panels; 1-DOF mechanisms","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"Metre-scale load-carrying lab demonstrators; no permitted building.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Scale demonstrated","value":"metre-scale modules carrying large loads","unit":"qualitative","basis":"measured","sources":["p-zhu2024"]}],"best_for":"All ORIJO typologies","limits":"Hinge sealing, thermal bridging and latch stiffness at building scale are unproven."},{"name":"Expandable softgoods habitats (Bigelow BEAM, Sierra Space LIFE, Max Space)","principle":"Woven restraint layer or isotensoid cords carry pressure; packed flat or folded around a core","maturity":"PILOT","trl":7,"trl_why":"BEAM has flown on the ISS since 2016; LIFE is in full-scale burst tests; Max Space is in pathfinder phase.","key_numbers":[{"label":"BEAM packed -> expanded","value":"2.16 x 2.36 -> 4.01 x 3.23","unit":"m (L x dia)","basis":"reported","sources":["src-beam-wiki"]},{"label":"BEAM volume / mass","value":"16 / 1,413","unit":"m3 / kg","basis":"reported","sources":["src-beam-wiki"]},{"label":"LIFE full-scale burst","value":"77 (Dec 2023) and 74 vs 60.8 required","unit":"psi","basis":"measured","sources":["src-life-tc","src-life-ut"]},{"label":"Max Space prototype","value":"2 -> 20; 96 cords rated 17,000 lb each","unit":"m3; lbf","basis":"reported","sources":["src-maxspace-tc"]}],"best_for":"E8 lunar, E4 polar inner bladders (ORIJO M13)","limits":"BEAM's first expansion attempt stalled; it then took about 7 h and 25 air injections to deploy."},{"name":"Rigid-panel origami analog habitat (SAGA LUNARK)","principle":"Closed origami shell of carbon-fibre panels, motor-deployed","maturity":"PILOT","trl":6,"trl_why":"Two-person crew lived in it in high-Arctic Greenland.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Expansion","value":"750","unit":"%","basis":"reported","sources":["src-lunark-saga"]},{"label":"Crew occupancy","value":"2 people, 60 days, down to -30 C","unit":"persons, days","basis":"reported","sources":["src-lunark-saga"]}],"best_for":"E4/E5 analog stations; marketing proof that origami habitats can be occupied","limits":"One-off; mass and cost not disclosed."}]},{"id":"BUILD-S6","name":"Structure-relative robots (collective assembly, logistics, upkeep)","function":"Robots that move on and through the structure they build or service, using the structure as map, rail and fixture.","how_it_works":"Instead of global localisation, these robots index to the structure's own periodic features. TERMES robots count bricks relative to a seed brick. ARMADAS inchworms lock their feet into lattice nodes, so every step is a metrology step and error does not accumulate. Collective rules compiled from the target shape keep many simple agents from deadlocking. Self-reconfigurable variants are built from the same voxels they place, so the fleet can grow itself. On real jobsites the commercial analogue is logistics: rail-climbing hoists (Kewazo LIFTBOT) move material up scaffolds.","options":[{"name":"Lattice-relative inchworm assemblers (NASA ARMADAS, SOLL-E)","principle":"Bipedal 5-DoF inchworm with locking feet; voxels fastened reversibly","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":5,"trl_why":"256-cell autonomous assembly, disassembly and reconfiguration on the ground; not flown.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Unit cells assembled","value":"256","unit":"cells","basis":"measured","sources":["p-gregg2024"]},{"label":"Lattice density","value":"0.0103","unit":"g/cm3","basis":"measured","sources":["p-gregg2024"]}],"best_for":"ORIJO TSURU robot on crease rails (M09); lunar trusses","limits":"Ultralight lattices only; weather sealing not addressed."},{"name":"Termite-style climbing builders (Harvard TERMES)","principle":"Stigmergic local rules guarantee a specified structure","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":3,"trl_why":"Foam-brick lab demo with 3 robots.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Robots in physical demo","value":"3","unit":"robots","basis":"measured","sources":["p-werfel2014"]}],"best_for":"Sandbag/regolith-bag berms (E3, E8), concept only","limits":"Slow; toy bricks."},{"name":"Scaffold-climbing material hoist (Kewazo LIFTBOT)","principle":"Rail robot on scaffolding replaces crane lifts","maturity":"COMMERCIAL","trl":9,"trl_why":"Used in industrial turnarounds.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Schedule saved replacing cranes (case study)","value":"22","unit":"%","basis":"claimed","sources":["src-kewazo-site"]}],"best_for":"Multi-storey sites; low relevance to single-storey ORIJO","limits":"Needs scaffold."}]},{"id":"BUILD-S7","name":"Off-Earth in-situ construction (regolith)","function":"Make pads, berms and shielding from local regolith so only the pressure vessel and machines are launched.","how_it_works":"Three routes. Binder jetting (D-Shape/ESA) sprays a salt binder into MgO-doped regolith; the 2 mm droplets stay in place by capillarity even in vacuum. Sintering by laser or concentrated sunlight partially melts grain contacts into ceramic. Extrusion of regolith-cement or geopolymer is the third. Sintered material is weak (about 3.4 MPa peak compressive strength for sintered cubic blocks in the 2026 study, and weaker still in tension), so it suits compression-only interlocking blocks, landing pads and radiation berms. The pressurised volume still comes from an inflatable or rigid module.","options":[{"name":"Binder-jetting of regolith simulant (ESA / Foster+Partners / Monolite D-Shape)","principle":"Spray binding salt into MgO-mixed regolith on a 6 m frame","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"1.5 t block demonstrated on Earth in 2013; no flight.","key_numbers":[{"label":"Build rate","value":"about 2 (next gen 3.5)","unit":"m/h","basis":"reported","sources":["src-esa-dshape"]}],"best_for":"E8 shielding berms","limits":"Binder still shipped from Earth."},{"name":"Laser/solar sintering (ICON Olympus, university labs)","principle":"Directed energy fuses regolith; Lego-like interlocking bricks","maturity":"EXPERIMENTAL","trl":4,"trl_why":"Simulant coupons and bricks; NASA-funded development since 2022.","key_numbers":[{"label":"NASA award to ICON (Olympus)","value":"57.2","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","sources":["src-icon-nasa"]},{"label":"Peak compressive strength, sintered bricks","value":"about 3.4","unit":"MPa","basis":"measured","sources":["p-mccallum2026"]}],"best_for":"E8 landing pads and ORIJO TSUKI ASHI feet","limits":"Energy-intensive; brittle; dust."}]}],"projects":[{"id":"pr-katerra","name":"Katerra","org":"Katerra Inc.","country":"US","year_or_period":"2015-2021","what":"Vertically integrated offsite construction: factories (Spokane, Phoenix, Tracy), CLT, design and contracting","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Raised >USD 2B (mostly SoftBank) and filed Chapter 11 in June 2021. Buying the whole supply chain and standardising designs failed against project variety and sticky subcontractor relationships.","sources":["src-katerra-cd","src-katerra-wiki"]},{"id":"pr-veev","name":"Veev","org":"Veev","country":"US/Israel","year_or_period":"2008-2023","what":"Prefab panel-system homebuilder backed by Lennar","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Raised USD 600M and closed in Nov 2023 after a capital raise was cancelled. Industry verdict: 'trying to boil the ocean'; homebuilding innovation runs on 5-10 year cycles that do not fit VC timelines.","sources":["src-veev-tc","src-veev-hw"]},{"id":"pr-factoryos","name":"Factory OS / Harbinger Homes","org":"Harbinger Production","country":"US","year_or_period":"2017-2026","what":"Volumetric modular apartment factory on Mare Island, Vallejo (Alphabet first customer, 300 units)","status":"at_risk","outcome_or_lesson":"About 4,000 units since 2017 (company-reported, 90% affordable), yet filed a WARN notice on 2026-02-13 covering up to all 280 employees, citing lack of new business, a pipeline gap and loss of capital funding. The company said it was not planning to close; the outcome after the 60-day window was not verified. Big plants die when the order book stalls.","sources":["src-factoryos-vs"]},{"id":"pr-auar","name":"AUAR robotic micro-factories","org":"Automated Architecture (AUAR) + ABB Robotics","country":"UK/US","year_or_period":"2024-","what":"Containerised ABB-robot cells producing timber-frame wall, floor and roof cassettes; hardware-as-a-service","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"Up to 180 homes/yr per micro-factory (claimed); two units shipped to Rival Holdings in the US Midwest; 12-week lead time to ship a factory.","sources":["src-auar-trr","src-auar-news"]},{"id":"pr-reframe","name":"Reframe Systems FAB1","org":"Reframe Systems","country":"US","year_or_period":"2022-","what":"Robotic microfactory (off-the-shelf arms, own vision, motion planning, magnet fixturing) for panelised and modular homes","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Raised USD 40M (Aug 2026); FAB1 equipment cost <USD 5M for up to 250 single-family homes/yr; 10 homes completed. Shows capital-light and local can work.","sources":["src-reframe-trr26","src-reframe-trr25"]},{"id":"pr-cuby","name":"Cuby mobile micro-factory","org":"Cuby Technologies","country":"US","year_or_period":"2023-","what":"'Factory that makes factories': deployable home-component factory on about 3 acres plus a 4-person unskilled on-site crew","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"About USD 10M per factory, 12 months to operate, about 150-200 homes/yr (claimed). Ten-year targets are aspirations, not results.","sources":["src-cuby-hw24","src-cuby-hw23"]},{"id":"pr-botbuilt","name":"BotBuilt","org":"BotBuilt","country":"US","year_or_period":"2020-","what":"Robotic framing (wall panels, floor and roof trusses) for production builders","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Raised USD 12.4M seed (2023); 9 homes framed then. Automating one trade sells; automating everything did not (cf. Katerra).","sources":["src-botbuilt-tc"]},{"id":"pr-icon","name":"ICON Vulcan / Phoenix / Titan","org":"ICON Technology","country":"US","year_or_period":"2018-","what":"Gantry and multi-storey 3D concrete printing; Wolf Ranch community with Lennar; Army barracks; NASA Olympus","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Cut about 25% of staff (114) in Jan 2025, then raised USD 56M. Printing walls fast does not make whole buildings cheap; the company refocused on selling printers (Phoenix, Titan).","sources":["src-icon-tc25","src-icon-3dp25","src-icon-phoenix-yt","src-icon-titan-yt","src-icon-wolf-yt"]},{"id":"pr-icon-olympus","name":"Project Olympus","org":"ICON with NASA MSFC","country":"US","year_or_period":"2020-","what":"Lunar surface construction (pads, habitats, roads) from regolith; Apollo-sample tests and lunar-gravity flight","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"USD 57.2M NASA award (Nov-Dec 2022). Still ground-level R&D, with no flight demonstration found.","sources":["src-icon-nasa"]},{"id":"pr-cobod-skov","name":"Skovsporet (COBOD BOD3)","org":"COBOD + Saga Space Architects + partners","country":"Denmark","year_or_period":"2025-2026","what":"36 printed student apartments (40-50 m2) in six buildings","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Learning curve: the first 6-apartment building took several weeks of printing, the last took 5 days, with a 3-person crew on site.","sources":["src-skovsporet-na"]},{"id":"pr-mighty","name":"Mighty Buildings","org":"Mighty Buildings","country":"US","year_or_period":"to 2025","what":"Prefab zero-net-energy homes; built a 3D-printed net-zero community in Desert Hot Springs, CA (technology details not verified)","status":"for_sale (Jan 2025; later outcome unverified)","outcome_or_lesson":"Put up for sale via Rock Creek Advisors in Jan 2025 after a restructuring that released staff; no closure was reported in the source. Proprietary materials plus a factory plus a builder role burned cash.","sources":["src-mighty-3dp","src-icon-3dp25"]},{"id":"pr-diamondage","name":"Diamond Age","org":"Diamond Age","country":"US","year_or_period":"to 2025","what":"Robotic home-construction startup partnered with production builder Century Communities","status":"failed","outcome_or_lesson":"Entered liquidation despite a production-builder partnership (reported early 2025).","sources":["src-icon-3dp25"]},{"id":"pr-hadrian","name":"Hadrian X","org":"FBR Ltd","country":"Australia/US","year_or_period":"2016 (patent priority)-","what":"Truck-mounted 32 m boom block-laying robot with dynamic compensation","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"Record >300 blocks/h in a 2023 test programme; factory acceptance (>285 blocks/h on a 751-block build) and sale to select partners at AUD 7.8M from Oct 2025; first US build was a single test home for PulteGroup at TerraWalk at Babcock Ranch, Florida (reported Feb 2025). About nine years from patent priority to sales.","sources":["src-hadrian-am23","src-hadrian-ie25","src-hadrian-pat","src-hadrian-yt","src-hadrian-cp25"]},{"id":"pr-cr-sam","name":"SAM and MULE","org":"Construction Robotics","country":"US","year_or_period":"by 2017 (video)-","what":"Semi-automated mason and material unit lift enhancer","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Collaborative robots with a mason in the loop are the commercially durable form; MULE users report 30-50% savings.","sources":["src-sam-yt","src-cr-site"]},{"id":"pr-built","name":"Built Robotics Exosystem and RPD 35","org":"Built Robotics","country":"US","year_or_period":"2016- (in the field since 2016; >3 GW of solar installed, >50,000 operating hours, 40+ sites, reported June 2026)","what":"Autonomy kits for excavators; then an autonomous solar pile driver","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"Found product-market fit in a narrow, repetitive, GNSS-friendly task (solar piles, about 3x manual) rather than general excavation (inference from product history).","sources":["src-rpd-pvmag","src-built-exo-yt","src-built-sick-yt","src-built-xlab"]},{"id":"pr-dusty","name":"Dusty FieldPrinter","org":"Dusty Robotics","country":"US","year_or_period":"by 2025","what":"BIM-to-floor layout printing robot","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Independent case study: -68% labour hours and rework 6.42% -> 0.25%.","sources":["p-kam2025","src-dusty-site"]},{"id":"pr-canvas","name":"Canvas drywall finishing","org":"Canvas Construction","country":"US","year_or_period":"2020 (left stealth)-","what":"Mobile robot spraying and sanding joint compound to Level 5","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"34% shorter Level 5 cycle at Newark Civic Center; union partnership eased adoption.","sources":["src-canvas-cd"]},{"id":"pr-civ","name":"CivDot+","org":"Civ Robotics","country":"US","year_or_period":"by 2026","what":"Autonomous survey staking rover for solar and earthworks","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Outdoor layout is commodity at about 8-9 mm (vendor claim); the remaining problem is anchoring, not marking.","sources":["src-civ-site"]},{"id":"pr-kewazo","name":"LIFTBOT","org":"KEWAZO","country":"Germany (HQ not verified in fetched page)","year_or_period":"by 2026","what":"Scaffold-climbing material robot","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"Logistics robots pay back quickly; 22% schedule saving reported in one case.","sources":["src-kewazo-site"]},{"id":"pr-boxabl","name":"Boxabl Casita","org":"Boxabl","country":"US","year_or_period":"2019 (patent priority)-","what":"Fold-out factory-built studio shipped in a road-legal package","status":"active","outcome_or_lesson":"About 744 built vs about 285 delivered by 2025-08-19; about USD 51M 2024 net loss; SPAC combination with FG Merger II Corp. implying about USD 3.5B enterprise value (350M shares x USD 10). Completion of the Nasdaq listing was not confirmed in the sources read. Unfolding is solved; demand, permits and site work are not.","sources":["src-boxabl-hw","src-boxabl-bo","src-boxabl-pat"]},{"id":"pr-tenfold","name":"TenFold self-deploying buildings","org":"Ten Fold Engineering","country":"UK","year_or_period":"2012 (patent priority)-","what":"Lever-linkage buildings that unfold from a transport box","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"Elegant gravity-assisted kinematics (the source of ORIJO's self-levelling-leg spec), but little evidence of volume sales; EP patent application withdrawn.","sources":["src-tenfold-pat","src-tenfold-yt"]},{"id":"pr-eth-isf","name":"In situ Fabricator / DFAB HOUSE","org":"ETH Zurich NCCR Digital Fabrication","country":"Switzerland","year_or_period":"2014-2019","what":"Mobile construction robot that built a brick wall and the Mesh Mould wall on site","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Proved on-site precision via relocalisation; found actuator payload-to-mass ratio the limit, which led to new hydraulic designs (HEAP excavator lineage).","sources":["p-giftthaler2017","p-dorfler2019","p-buchli2018","p-garciadesoto2018"]},{"id":"pr-mit-dcp","name":"Digital Construction Platform","org":"MIT Media Lab (Mediated Matter)","country":"US","year_or_period":"to 2017 (paper)","what":"Tracked compound-arm robot printing insulated foam formwork","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"14.6 m dome in <13.5 h with PV-charging steps; never commercialised.","sources":["p-keating2017"]},{"id":"pr-termes","name":"TERMES","org":"Harvard Wyss/SEAS","country":"US","year_or_period":"2011-2014","what":"Termite-inspired climbing robots building from bricks using local rules","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Correctness guarantees for decentralised construction; speed and payload far from practical.","sources":["p-werfel2014","src-termes-seas"]},{"id":"pr-armadas","name":"ARMADAS","org":"NASA Ames","country":"US","year_or_period":"2019-2024 (papers)","what":"Robots that assemble and reconfigure composite voxel lattices","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"256-cell autonomous build and reconfiguration; the structure is the robot's metrology (direct ancestor of ORIJO TSURU).","sources":["p-gregg2024","p-park2023solle","src-armadas-yt"]},{"id":"pr-mit-cba","name":"Self-reconfigurable voxel robots","org":"MIT Center for Bits and Atoms","country":"US","year_or_period":"2024 (paper)","what":"Robots made of the voxels they assemble","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Self-replicating assembly fleet demonstrated at small scale.","sources":["p-smith2024"]},{"id":"pr-romu","name":"Romu","org":"Harvard Wyss / Univ. Stuttgart ICD","country":"US/Germany","year_or_period":"2020 (paper)","what":"Autonomous robot driving posts and sheet piles","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Proof that small robots can anchor; extended to fleet check-dam simulations.","sources":["p-romu2020"]},{"id":"pr-beam","name":"BEAM","org":"Bigelow Aerospace / NASA","country":"US","year_or_period":"2016-","what":"Expandable module on the ISS","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"First expansion attempt stalled (2016-05-26); the second took about 7 h; certified to stay until 2028 versus a 2-year plan. Packed dwell causes stiction, so expansion needs slow, staged control.","sources":["src-beam-wiki"]},{"id":"pr-life","name":"LIFE habitat","org":"Sierra Space (straps with ILC Dover)","country":"US","year_or_period":"2022-","what":"Expandable Vectran-strap habitat, 300 m3 full-scale test articles","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"Full-scale bursts at 77 and 74 psi vs 60.8 psi required; destructive testing is the certification path.","sources":["src-life-tc","src-life-ut"]},{"id":"pr-maxspace","name":"Max Space isotensoid habitats","org":"Max Space","country":"US","year_or_period":"2024-","what":"Cord-restrained (isotensoid) expandable modules","status":"pilot","outcome_or_lesson":"2 -> 20 m3 prototype built by 5 people in 6 months; 2026 rideshare pathfinder planned; Voyager investment (2026).","sources":["src-maxspace-tc","src-maxspace-voyager"]},{"id":"pr-lunark","name":"LUNARK","org":"SAGA Space Architects","country":"Denmark","year_or_period":"Sep-Nov (year 2020 per public reporting; not stated on fetched page)","what":"Rigid carbon-panel origami habitat in high-Arctic Greenland","status":"shipped","outcome_or_lesson":"750% expansion; 2 crew for 60 days at down to -30 C. Origami shells can be lived in.","sources":["src-lunark-saga"]},{"id":"pr-esa-dshape","name":"ESA lunar 3D printing study","org":"ESA, Foster+Partners, Monolite, Alta, SSSA","country":"EU","year_or_period":"2013","what":"Binder-jet printing of regolith simulant into a 1.5 t block","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"About 2 m/h; showed vacuum-compatible printing.","sources":["src-esa-dshape"]},{"id":"pr-icd-timber","name":"On-site and micro-factory timber gluing robots","org":"Univ. Stuttgart ICD / IntCDC","country":"Germany","year_or_period":"2023-2026","what":"Crane + clamp + arm on-site gluing; containerised screw-press gluing cell","status":"research","outcome_or_lesson":"Embedding positioning aids in the material makes robots precise; this supports ORIJO's material-robot co-design.","sources":["p-opgenorth2024","p-huang2026"]}],"papers":[{"id":"p-melenbrink2020","title":"On-site autonomous construction robots: Towards unsupervised building","authors":"Melenbrink N., Werfel J., Menges A.","year":2020,"venue":"Automation in Construction 119:103312","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103312","finding":"Review (~330 citations) finds industry automates earthmoving and prefabrication while academia builds additive/discrete assembly; full autonomy needs most work in site preparation and substructure (anchoring), plus co-designed material-robot systems.","type":"review"},{"id":"p-romu2020","title":"Autonomous anchoring for robotic construction","authors":"Melenbrink N., Rinderspacher K., Menges A., Werfel J.","year":2020,"venue":"Automation in Construction 120:103391","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103391","finding":"Romu, a wheeled robot, uses a vibratory hammer plus its own body mass to drive posts and interlocking sheet piles, shown in controlled and natural terrain; the paper names anchoring as the gap neither industry nor academia had addressed.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-petersen2019","title":"A review of collective robotic construction","authors":"Petersen K.H., Napp N., Stuart-Smith R., Rus D., Kovac M.","year":2019,"venue":"Science Robotics 4(28):eaau8479","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aau8479","finding":"Review (~210 citations) of multirobot systems that modify a shared environment: scalability comes from co-designing architecture, process, mechanisms and control.","type":"review"},{"id":"p-werfel2014","title":"Designing Collective Behavior in a Termite-Inspired Robot Construction Team","authors":"Werfel J., Petersen K., Nagpal R.","year":2014,"venue":"Science 343(6172):754-758","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1245842","finding":"A compiler turns a user-specified structure into local rules that guarantee completion; physically demonstrated with 3 autonomous climbing robots using only onboard sensing and stigmergy.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-keating2017","title":"Toward site-specific and self-sufficient robotic fabrication on architectural scales","authors":"Keating S.J., Leland J.C., Cai L., Oxman N.","year":2017,"venue":"Science Robotics 2(5):eaam8986","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aam8986","finding":"MIT Digital Construction Platform (hydraulic + electric compound arm on a tracked base) printed a 14.6 m diameter, 3.7 m tall insulated-foam dome formwork on site in under 13.5 h, with early PV charging.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"p-giftthaler2017","title":"Mobile robotic fabrication at 1:1 scale: the In situ Fabricator","authors":"Giftthaler M., Sandy T., Dorfler K., Brooks I., et al.","year":2017,"venue":"Construction Robotics 1:3-14","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41693-017-0003-5","finding":"ETH In situ Fabricator built a full-size undulating brick wall with repeated autonomous repositioning and localisation, and the Mesh Mould process; limits led ETH to call for a new class of construction actuator.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"p-dorfler2019","title":"Mobile robotic fabrication beyond factory conditions: case study Mesh Mould wall of the DFAB HOUSE","authors":"Dorfler K., Hack N., Sandy T., Giftthaler M., et al.","year":2019,"venue":"Construction Robotics 3:53-67","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41693-019-00020-w","finding":"Case study of the In situ Fabricator building the curved Mesh Mould wall of DFAB HOUSE on an occupied research building (abstract not retrieved; numbers not extracted here).","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"p-buchli2018","title":"Digital in situ fabrication - Challenges and opportunities for robotic in situ fabrication in architecture, construction, and beyond","authors":"Buchli J., Giftthaler M., Kumar N., Lussi M., et al.","year":2018,"venue":"Cement and Concrete Research 112:66-75","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.013","finding":"Position paper from NCCR Digital Fabrication on state estimation, control and material processes for robots that fabricate on site (abstract not retrieved).","type":"review"},{"id":"p-garciadesoto2018","title":"Productivity of digital fabrication in construction: Cost and time analysis of a robotically built wall","authors":"Garcia de Soto B., Agusti-Juan I., Hunhevicz J., Joss S., et al.","year":2018,"venue":"Automation in Construction 92:297-311","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2018.04.004","finding":"Simulation from DFAB HOUSE data (~430 citations): robotic fabrication beats conventional productivity for complex walls; the advantage shrinks for simple geometry (no single headline number in abstract).","type":"model"},{"id":"p-kam2025","title":"Comparison of dusty robotics and traditional layout methods","authors":"Kam A., Tanaka Y., Brosque C., Roedel H.","year":2025,"venue":"Construction Robotics","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41693-025-00163-z","finding":"On an 8-floor medical office building, robotic layout cut total labour hours by 68%, layout days by 18%, physically straining work by 99% and rework from 6.42% to 0.25%.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"p-zhang2021aes","title":"An autonomous excavator system for material loading tasks","authors":"Zhang L., Zhao J., Long P., Wang L., et al.","year":2021,"venue":"Science Robotics 6(55):eabc3164","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abc3164","finding":"Baidu AES runs 24 hours per intervention (no human intervention for 24 h) with material handled per hour close to an experienced operator, on compact and standard excavators.","type":"field-trial"},{"id":"p-gregg2024","title":"Ultralight, strong, and self-reprogrammable mechanical metamaterials","authors":"Gregg C.E., Catanoso D., Formoso O.I.B., Kostitsyna I., et al.","year":2024,"venue":"Science Robotics 9(86):eadi2746","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.adi2746","finding":"NASA ARMADAS: two robot types assembled, disassembled and reconfigured a 256 unit-cell composite lattice (0.0103 g/cm3, 11.38 kPa strength, 1.1129 MPa stiffness), using lattice periodicity for indexing and metrology.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-park2023solle","title":"SOLL-E: A Module Transport and Placement Robot for Autonomous Assembly of Discrete Lattice Structures","authors":"Park I.-W., Catanoso D., Formoso O., Gregg C., et al.","year":2023,"venue":"IEEE/RSJ IROS 2023","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/IROS55552.2023.10341479","finding":"5-DoF bipedal inchworm robot with identical servo-locked foot and cargo grippers; demonstrated autonomous transport and placement of building blocks on the ground.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-smith2024","title":"Self-Reconfigurable Robots for Collaborative Discrete Lattice Assembly","authors":"Smith M., Abdel-Rahman A., Gershenfeld N.","year":2024,"venue":"IEEE ICRA 2024","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ICRA57147.2024.10609866","finding":"Robots built from the same voxels they assemble (reversible solder joints) assembled another robot and then co-assembled a structure, so the system can scale its own parallelism.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-zhu2024","title":"Large-scale modular and uniformly thick origami-inspired adaptable and load-carrying structures","authors":"Zhu Y., Filipov E.T.","year":2024,"venue":"Nature Communications 15","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46667-0","finding":"Derives conditions for flat-foldable, developable, uniformly thick degree-N vertices; builds metre-scale modular origami that reconfigures between storage and structural states and carries large loads.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-davila2019","title":"Robotics and automated systems in construction: Understanding industry-specific challenges for adoption","authors":"Davila Delgado J.M., Oyedele L.O., Ajayi A., Akanbi L., et al.","year":2019,"venue":"Journal of Building Engineering 26:100868","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100868","finding":"Focus groups with 28 experts plus survey (~580 citations): the top adoption barriers are contractor-side economics, client-side economics, technical/work culture and a weak business case.","type":"review"},{"id":"p-opgenorth2024","title":"Multi-scalar robotic fabrication system for on-site press gluing in multi-storey timber buildings","authors":"Opgenorth N., Nunes Locatelli D., Leder S., Wagner H.J., et al.","year":2024,"venue":"Automation in Construction 165:105774","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105774","finding":"Clamping device + industrial arm + automated crane assemble point-supported timber slabs on site with high precision by building positioning aids into the material.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-huang2026","title":"Constraint to capability: a multi-robot screw-press gluing micro-factory for scalable and efficient multi-story timber slab assembly","authors":"Huang Z., Stark T., Skoury L., Wagner A., et al.","year":2026,"venue":"Construction Robotics","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41693-026-00190-4","finding":"Two containerised robots apply glue, place and torque-press timber slabs within adhesive open time, with logged QA/QC; validated in a full-scale prototype.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-mccallum2026","title":"Additive manufacturing of lunar regolith for reconfigurable building blocks toward lunar habitation","authors":"McCallum C., Liang Y., Tushar N., Xu B., et al.","year":2026,"venue":"npj Advanced Manufacturing","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s44334-026-00111-x","finding":"Binder-free laser sintering of lunar simulant; designs Lego-like interlocking bricks reassemblable without mortar; sintered cubic blocks reach a peak compressive strength of about 3.4 MPa.","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-puzatova2022","title":"Large-Scale 3D Printing for Construction Application by Means of Robotic Arm and Gantry 3D Printer: A Review","authors":"Puzatova A.V., Shakor P., Laghi V., Dmitrieva M.A.","year":2022,"venue":"Buildings 12(11):2023","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12112023","finding":"Classifies printers as robotic-arm, portal and gantry; gantry suits whole buildings, and no printer then handled concrete with coarse aggregate, a strength and cost barrier.","type":"review"},{"id":"p-zhang2025nrct","title":"3D printing technology in concrete construction","authors":"Zhang Y.-Y., Zhu X., Li M., Zhang C., et al.","year":2025,"venue":"Nature Reviews Clean Technology","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-025-00047-z","finding":"Review notes that formwork can be 35-60% of total construction cost when not reusable, the main economic case for formwork-free printing (Scholar snippet; full text not read).","type":"review"},{"id":"p-ahmed2023","title":"A review of '3D concrete printing': Materials and process characterization, economic considerations and environmental sustainability","authors":"Ahmed G.H.","year":2023,"venue":"Journal of Building Engineering 66:105863","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.105863","finding":"Highly cited 3DCP review covering rheology, buildability, cost and LCA (~230 citations; abstract not retrieved).","type":"review"},{"id":"p-rubenstein2014","title":"Programmable self-assembly in a thousand-robot swarm","authors":"Rubenstein M., Cornejo A., Nagpal R.","year":2014,"venue":"Science 345(6198):795-799","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254295","finding":"1,024 simple Kilobots self-assembled into user-specified 2D shapes using local rules: proof that coordination scales, at very low speed (number from title; abstract not re-read).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-ardiny2015","title":"Construction automation with autonomous mobile robots: A review","authors":"Ardiny H., Witwicki S., Mondada F.","year":2015,"venue":"IEEE ICROM 2015","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ICROM.2015.7367821","finding":"Classifies autonomous mobile construction robots by application, material and robot system; space agencies are a main driver of no-human construction.","type":"review"},{"id":"p-gharbia2020","title":"Robotic technologies for on-site building construction: A systematic review","authors":"Gharbia M., Chang-Richards A., Lu Y., Zhong R.Y., Li H.","year":2020,"venue":"Journal of Building Engineering 32:101584","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101584","finding":"Systematic review of on-site robots (~220 citations); most remain at prototype stage (abstract not retrieved).","type":"review"},{"id":"p-hinkle2009","title":"Deployment Testing of an Expandable Lunar Habitat","authors":"Hinkle J., Lin J.K.H., Watson J.","year":2009,"venue":"AIAA SPACE 2009","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2009-6447","finding":"ILC Dover / NASA LaRC hybrid habitat with rigid end caps and a softgoods mid-section, deployment-tested (details not extracted).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-chen2018","title":"Construction automation: Research areas, industry concerns and suggestions for advancement","authors":"Chen Q., Garcia de Soto B., Adey B.T.","year":2018,"venue":"Automation in Construction 94:22-38","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2018.05.028","finding":"Maps construction automation research against industry concerns (~220 citations; abstract not retrieved).","type":"review"},{"id":"p-zhang2024dlam","title":"Precision in Assembled Discrete Lattice Space Structures for Next-Generation ISAM Applications","authors":"NASA Ames ARMADAS team (authors not extracted)","year":2024,"venue":"IEEE Aerospace Conference 2024","doi_or_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/AERO58975.2024.10521407","finding":"Studies the geometric precision achievable by robot-assembled discrete lattices for antenna and optical structures (title/abstract fragment only).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"p-jiass2024hinge","title":"Design and evaluation of compliant hinges for deployable thick origami structures","authors":"Authors not extracted","year":2024,"venue":"Journal of the IASS 65(4)","doi_or_url":"https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iass/jiass/2024/00000065/00000004/art00003","finding":"Compares compliant hinge designs for architectural-scale thick origami (Scholar snippet only).","type":"experiment"},{"id":"PA-vasilic2025","title":"Standardization Aspects of Concrete 3D Printing","authors":"Vasilic K","year":2025,"venue":"RILEM Technical Letters","doi_or_url":"10.21809/rilemtechlett.2024.201","finding":"The absence of standardized testing, processing and approval procedures hinders adoption of 3D printed concrete; proposes first steps towards European-level standardization.","type":"review"},{"id":"PA-salet2018","title":"Design of a 3D printed concrete bridge by testing","authors":"Salet TAM, Ahmed ZY, Bos FP, Laagland HLM","year":2018,"venue":"Virtual and Physical Prototyping 13(3)","doi_or_url":"10.1080/17452759.2018.1476064","finding":"Most full-scale 3DCP structures were not certifiable under codes of practice; a bridge was certified for public use through design-by-testing. Precedent for ORIJO: certify the fold by full-scale test, not by calculation alone.","type":"case study"}],"numbers":[{"id":"n01","label":"Robotic layout labour-hour reduction","value":68,"unit":"%","basis":"measured","context":"Dusty FieldPrinter vs manual, 8-floor LA medical office; also rework 6.42% -> 0.25%","sources":["p-kam2025"]},{"id":"n02","label":"Autonomous solar piles per day (2-person crew)","value":"about 300 (vs about 100)","unit":"piles/day","basis":"claimed","context":"Built Robotics RPD 35; about 73 s per pile; sub-centimetre","sources":["src-rpd-pvmag"]},{"id":"n03","label":"Autonomous excavator unattended run","value":24,"unit":"h per intervention","basis":"measured","context":"Baidu AES; throughput about equal to an experienced operator","sources":["p-zhang2021aes"]},{"id":"n04","label":"Hadrian X peak lay rate","value":">300","unit":"blocks/h (USA-format CMU)","basis":"reported","context":"Record from FBR's testing and calibration programme (announced 2023-05-08), not an outdoor site build; '>70 m2/h of wall' applies only to the largest block format Hadrian is designed for (conditional, not measured). 2025 factory acceptance test: 751-block structure at >285 blocks/h effective; FBR claims peak up to 360 blocks/h.","sources":["src-hadrian-am23","src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"id":"n05","label":"Hadrian X price","value":"AUD 7.8M (article also gives 5,088,759 without a currency label, presumably USD)","unit":"per machine","basis":"reported","context":"Sold via construction partners after 2025 factory acceptance testing","sources":["src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"id":"n06","label":"Laser tracker rate for boom compensation","value":">=250, preferably >=1,000","unit":"Hz","basis":"reported","context":"FBR patent: slow boom loop + fast arm loop, 1 ms planner cycle","sources":["src-hadrian-pat"]},{"id":"n07","label":"Gantry printer max speed / crew / price","value":"500 mm/s / 4 / from 400,000 USD","unit":"mixed","basis":"claimed","context":"COBOD BOD2 spec page; setup >= 6 h","sources":["src-cobod-bod2"]},{"id":"n08","label":"3DCP learning curve","value":"several weeks -> 5","unit":"days per 6-apartment building","basis":"reported","context":"Skovsporet, 36 apartments, BOD3, 3-person site crew","sources":["src-skovsporet-na"]},{"id":"n09","label":"On-site printed dome formwork","value":"14.6 m dia x 3.7 m in <13.5 h","unit":"m, h","basis":"measured","context":"MIT DCP","sources":["p-keating2017"]},{"id":"n10","label":"Robot-assembled lattice","value":"256 cells; 0.0103 g/cm3","unit":"cells; g/cm3","basis":"measured","context":"NASA ARMADAS assembly + reconfiguration","sources":["p-gregg2024"]},{"id":"n11","label":"Micro-factory annual output","value":"up to 180 (AUAR); up to 250 SF homes (Reframe); about 150-200 (Cuby)","unit":"homes/yr per factory","basis":"claimed","context":"Capital-light factories, 2024-2026","sources":["src-auar-trr","src-reframe-trr26","src-cuby-hw23"]},{"id":"n12","label":"Micro-factory capex","value":"<5 (Reframe equipment); about 10 (Cuby factory)","unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","context":"Compare Katerra >USD 2B raised","sources":["src-reframe-trr26","src-cuby-hw24","src-katerra-cd"]},{"id":"n13","label":"Capital lost by failed vertically integrated offsite builders","value":">2,000 (Katerra) + 600 (Veev)","unit":"M USD raised","basis":"reported","context":"Katerra Ch.11 June 2021; Veev shutdown Nov 2023","sources":["src-katerra-cd","src-veev-tc"]},{"id":"n14","label":"Fold-out home units built vs delivered","value":"744 vs 285","unit":"units (as of 2025-08-19)","basis":"reported","context":"Boxabl; about 744 manufactured vs about 285 delivered and installed by 2025-08-19; 2024 net loss about USD 50.95M. The '<1 h on-site assembly' figure is not stated in the cited sources (unverified).","sources":["src-boxabl-hw","src-boxabl-bo"]},{"id":"n15","label":"Expandable module packed -> expanded","value":"2.16 x 2.36 m -> 4.01 x 3.23 m; 16 m3; 1,413 kg","unit":"m, m3, kg","basis":"reported","context":"BEAM; first expansion stalled, second took about 7 h with 25 air pulses","sources":["src-beam-wiki"]},{"id":"n16","label":"Full-scale softgoods burst margin","value":"77 psi vs 60.8 psi (+27%)","unit":"psi","basis":"measured","context":"Sierra Space LIFE, 300 m3 article, Dec 2023; second full-scale test 74 psi (+22%)","sources":["src-life-tc","src-life-ut"]},{"id":"n17","label":"Isotensoid habitat prototype","value":"2 -> 20 m3; 96 cords x 17,000 lb","unit":"m3; lbf","basis":"reported","context":"Max Space","sources":["src-maxspace-tc"]},{"id":"n18","label":"Origami analog habitat expansion","value":750,"unit":"%","basis":"reported","context":"SAGA LUNARK, Greenland, 2 crew for 60 days","sources":["src-lunark-saga"]},{"id":"n19","label":"Drywall Level 5 cycle-time reduction","value":34,"unit":"%","basis":"reported","context":"Canvas at Newark Civic Center (Webcor)","sources":["src-canvas-cd"]},{"id":"n20","label":"Outdoor staking precision","value":"3/100 ft (vendor states 8; 3/100 ft is about 9.1)","unit":"ft (mm)","basis":"claimed","context":"CivDot+ vendor page; '8x faster' than unspecified baseline (claimed, no methodology)","sources":["src-civ-site"]},{"id":"n21","label":"Sintered regolith brick strength","value":3.4,"unit":"MPa (peak compressive)","basis":"measured","context":"Binder-free laser sintering of lunar regolith simulant; strength measured on sintered cubic blocks (interlocking Lego-like bricks were designed separately; their strength is not given in the abstract)","sources":["p-mccallum2026"]},{"id":"n22","label":"Regolith binder-jet print rate","value":"about 2 (next gen 3.5)","unit":"m/h","basis":"reported","context":"ESA/Monolite D-Shape 2013","sources":["src-esa-dshape"]},{"id":"n23","label":"NASA lunar construction award","value":57.2,"unit":"M USD","basis":"reported","context":"ICON Project Olympus, late 2022","sources":["src-icon-nasa"]},{"id":"n24","label":"3DCP leader layoffs","value":"114 (about 25%)","unit":"employees","basis":"reported","context":"ICON, Jan 2025; raised USD 56M a month later","sources":["src-icon-tc25","src-icon-3dp25"]},{"id":"n25","label":"Robotic framing running cost","value":"about 1","unit":"USD/h","basis":"claimed","context":"BotBuilt; US framing USD 7-16/sq ft incl. labour 4-10","sources":["src-botbuilt-tc"]},{"id":"n26","label":"Energy to raise one YOSHI-4 half shell","value":"about 0.0045","unit":"kWh","basis":"calculated","context":"E = m g h with m = 1,100 kg (half of 2,200 kg YOSHI-4 target mass), centre-of-gravity lift h = 1.5 m (assumption): 1,100 x 9.81 x 1.5 = 16.2 kJ. Unfolding is a force and control problem, not an energy problem.","sources":["src-concept-v3"]},{"id":"n27","label":"Patent-to-commercial lag for a field construction robot","value":"about 9","unit":"years","basis":"calculated","context":"Hadrian dynamic compensation priority 2016-07-15 to 2025 factory acceptance and sale","sources":["src-hadrian-pat","src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"id":"NG-06","label":"ICC-ES AC509 (3D concrete walls) approval","value":"2023-08 (rev. 2024-08)","unit":"date","basis":"reported","context":"Evaluation-service route for proprietary 3D printed walls","sources":["src-icces-ac509"]},{"id":"NG-07","label":"ICC 3D automated construction standard: work start / public hearing","value":"2023-10 / 2025-02-14","unit":"date","basis":"reported","context":"Covers load-bearing, non-load-bearing and shear concrete walls; ICC 1150-2026 listing seen in ICC Store snippet (not read)","sources":["src-3dprint-icc-walls","src-icc1150-store"]}],"failures":[{"what":"Katerra (>USD 2B raised, Chapter 11 June 2021)","why":"Bought an entire supply chain via acquisitions, standardised designs that projects would not accept, kept expanding through 2019 warning signs; COVID delays; lender Greensill collapsed.","lesson_for_anyground":"Stay asset-light: license containerised micro-factories, buy MIZU, battery and PV from OEMs, and never own land, contracting or materials plants. One product grammar (910 x 1820 grid), not bespoke projects."},{"what":"Veev (USD 600M raised, shut Nov 2023)","why":"A capital-hungry proprietary panel system; a cancelled raise killed it; observers say it should have been a builder, not a manufacturer.","lesson_for_anyground":"Prove unit economics on a 6-key hotel or farm that ORIJO operates (SHIKINEN lease revenue) before scaling factories; keep burn tied to delivered nights and kWh."},{"what":"Boxabl: 744 built vs 285 delivered (mid-2025); about USD 51M 2024 loss","why":"Unfolding works in under an hour, but buyers still need land, permits, foundations and utility hookups; inventory piled up.","lesson_for_anyground":"The bottleneck is site and permission, not the fold. ORIJO must ship anchoring (ASHI), autonomy (no utility hookup) and a permit pack with every order, and build only to signed orders."},{"what":"3D-printing shake-out: ICON -25% staff (2025), Mighty Buildings for sale (2025), Diamond Age liquidation","why":"Printing automates walls only (about one trade); roof, MEP, windows and finishes stay manual, so whole-house savings are small, while printers, pumps and crews are capital-heavy.","lesson_for_anyground":"Do not print shells. Use printing only for optional thermal-mass plinths (E3) or lunar pads (E8)."},{"what":"Harbinger/Factory OS WARN notice for up to 280 staff (Feb 2026) despite about 4,000 units (closure not confirmed)","why":"Large fixed plant with a lumpy public-funding pipeline.","lesson_for_anyground":"Factory capacity should scale in container-sized increments that can be idled or moved."},{"what":"BEAM first expansion stalled (May 2016)","why":"Higher-than-expected internal pressure with minimal motion on the first attempt (reported); the commonly cited cause, friction between long-packed fabric layers, was not confirmed in the sources read here.","lesson_for_anyground":"Long packed storage causes hinge and membrane stiction. Require a pre-ship cycle test, slow staged unfolding with force limits and a dwell-time rule in the module passport."},{"what":"Hadrian X: about 9 years from patent priority to commercial sale","why":"Outdoor dynamic compensation, adhesive logistics and certification of robot-built walls take long field iteration.","lesson_for_anyground":"Budget multi-year field iteration for any novel field robot (TSURU, pile robot); start with rented commercial machines (RPD-class, excavator augers)."},{"what":"General-purpose research fabricators (In situ Fabricator, DCP) never productised","why":"Low payload-to-mass ratio, relocalisation overhead, single-purpose tools, no business case per Davila Delgado's adoption barriers.","lesson_for_anyground":"Automate narrow, repetitive, high-value steps (layout, anchoring, unfold sequencing, latch audit) and let the folded product carry the complexity."}],"interfaces":[{"with_layer":"structure","exchange":"Anchor loads (kN) and pile records; datum sockets at 910 mm; as-built point cloud","design_rule":"Every leg and pile gets a logged position (+/-10 mm target) and installation torque; the shell's datum frame is registered once to the pile set, and later robots use the shell, not GNSS."},{"with_layer":"energy","exchange":"kWh for unfold winches and robots (about 0.005 kWh potential energy per half shell; peak power is what matters); micro-factory electricity","design_rule":"Size unfold drives for peak force on a 48-60 V DC bus; deploy-time energy must come from the module's own DENCHI pack so unfolding needs no grid or generator."},{"with_layer":"water","exchange":"Site drainage paths, pile clearance to buried water and sewage lines, rainwater from fold creases","design_rule":"Pile layout is generated after water routing; creases drain to collection before the first unfold rain event."},{"with_layer":"mind","exchange":"Fold sequence scripts, IMU and load-cell telemetry, module passport (fold cycles, dwell time, latch torque)","design_rule":"No unfold step proceeds without sensor confirmation of the previous latch; wind and temperature lockouts are enforced in firmware, not by the app."},{"with_layer":"care","exchange":"Labour minutes for inspection, re-levelling and latch audit; TSURU tasks","design_rule":"Post-deployment inspection is robot-first (TSURU on crease rails, drone for roofs); humans only sign off."},{"with_layer":"grow","exchange":"HATA cassettes installed on JO-PORT datums; greenhouse YOSHI-6G erection","design_rule":"Farm racks dock to the same kinematic datums as the shell so no on-site alignment of rails is needed."},{"with_layer":"loop","exchange":"Factory offcuts, end-of-life panels, refold and return logistics","design_rule":"Every module must refold to its shipping envelope; the refold sequence is tested in the factory acceptance test."}],"autonomy_ladder":[{"level":"L0","description":"Conventional: surveyor stakes, crew digs footings, carpenters assemble; modular set by crane.","human_minutes_per_week":"n/a (several person-weeks per home on site; no ORIJO data)","enabling_tech":"Hand tools, crane"},{"level":"L1","description":"Machine-assisted: GNSS staking, excavator auger for screw piles, TenFold/Boxabl-style manual jack or winch unfold with a checklist.","human_minutes_per_week":"Deployment about 30-38 person-h per 4-person home (calculated, targets); then about 30 min/week inspection","enabling_tech":"CivDot-class staking, compact excavator, 12 V winch, ASHI legs"},{"level":"L2","description":"Robot does narrow tasks: autonomous staking, RPD-class or robotic helical piling with torque logging, app-sequenced unfold with sensor-gated latches.","human_minutes_per_week":"Deployment about 15-20 person-h per home (target); 15 min/week remote review","enabling_tech":"RPD 35 / Romu-class anchoring, load-cell winch, IMU per panel, KUSABI latch sensors"},{"level":"L3","description":"Supervised autonomy: site robots chain survey -> anchor -> level; the shell unfolds itself under a closed-loop fold controller; TSURU audits latches; remote engineer approves gates.","human_minutes_per_week":"Deployment about 6-10 person-h (target, mostly delivery and sign-off); 5-10 min/week","enabling_tech":"ORI-SEQ controller, SUMI-ITO anchoring rover, digital twin, ARMADAS-style rail robot"},{"level":"L4","description":"Autonomous relocation: the module re-levels itself as soil or snow moves, refolds before storms or at lease end and is collected by a standard carrier.","human_minutes_per_week":"<5 min/week; humans only for transport","enabling_tech":"Jackable ASHI legs (Halley VI precedent), refold-certified hinges, weather-triggered fold policy"},{"level":"L5","description":"Self-growing settlement: robots install new piles and dock new modules delivered by drone or rover without people (lunar TSUKI case: robotic pre-deployment before crew).","human_minutes_per_week":"0 on site","enabling_tech":"Collective construction (ARMADAS, self-reconfigurable fleets), regolith sintering, inflatable cores (LIFE/Max Space)"}],"orijo_design":{"recommended_stack":[{"subsystem":"BUILD-S1 fabricate","choice":"Licensed containerised micro-factory (CNC router + 2 cobots + vacuum membrane laminator + fold test rig), AUAR/Reframe pattern","why":"Capex in the USD <5-10M class is proven to produce homes; ORIJO panels are flat, so fixture-first robotics fits better than volumetric lines. Avoids the Katerra/Veev capital trap."},{"subsystem":"BUILD-S2 layout","choice":"Drone photogrammetry + RTK staking rover (CivDot-class, rented) outdoors; FieldPrinter-class layout only for KURA pads on slabs or roofs","why":"Commercial, about 8-9 mm outdoors (vendor claim) and 1.6 mm indoors; 68% labour reduction evidence."},{"subsystem":"BUILD-S3 anchoring","choice":"Helical screw piles installed by compact excavator auger with torque logging (L1/L2); develop SUMI-ITO rover; use RPD-class subcontractors for farms over about 40 piles","why":"Anchoring is the gap the Melenbrink review flags, and torque is a free proof-load record. Solar-pile robots already exist commercially."},{"subsystem":"BUILD-S4 on-site additive","choice":"None for shells; optional printed plinth or thermal-mass hearth in E3; regolith sintering only for E8 pads","why":"The 3DCP shake-out shows wall printing alone does not pay; ORIJO's value is factory-finished folds."},{"subsystem":"BUILD-S5 deployable shell","choice":"Thick-panel rigid origami (M01/M02) with karakuri counterweights + 12 V winch, closed-loop ORI-SEQ controller; softgoods bladder only for M13","why":"Unfold energy is trivial (about 0.005 kWh per half shell); the risks are peak force, wind, stiction and latch verification, which are control and sensing problems solvable with commodity parts."},{"subsystem":"BUILD-S6 structure-relative robots","choice":"TSURU inchworm on crease-rail datums (M09) for latch audit and cartridge swap","why":"ARMADAS shows structure-indexed robots avoid cumulative error; the 910 mm grid is a ready-made lattice."},{"subsystem":"BUILD-S7 off-Earth","choice":"License grammar; partner for regolith pads (Olympus-class) and LIFE/Max Space-class bladders","why":"Capital and TRL are outside a startup's reach; keep TSUKI as licensing."}],"new_mechanisms_or_modules":[{"name":"ORI-SEQ (fold sequencer)","what":"Closed-loop unfold and refold controller for YOSHI/HOSHI shells, adapting FBR's two-loop compensation idea to folding.","how_it_works":"A slow loop drives the 12 V winch or geared counterweight along a precomputed kinematic path from the bar-and-hinge solver (web/fold). A fast loop uses a per-panel IMU and an inline load cell to stop, hold or back off: an electromagnetic brake on each primary hinge damps gusts and dynamic overshoot. Gates between phases require latch confirmation (KUSABI sensors), wind below a threshold from a mast anemometer and a hinge-torque signature within the band recorded at factory acceptance. The same script runs backward to refold, and every run is logged to the module passport (cycles, peak loads, dwell time since last fold).","prototype_12mo":{"build":"1:4 scale YOSHI half shell (4 panels, 2 fold lines) on a test frame, plus one full-size single-hinge bay (910 x 1820 panel pair) with winch, 4 IMUs, 2 load cells, 2 hinge brakes and an ESP32/PLC controller","bom_usd":"8,000-15,000 (estimate)","test":"200 unfold/refold cycles; fan-driven gust injection; stiction test after 30 and 90 days packed at 40 C; compare peak cable force with the solver prediction","pass":"Peak cable force within 15% of prediction; no uncommanded motion >20 mm under gust; all 200 cycles complete with latch confirmation; post-dwell breakaway force <1.5x fresh","kill":"Breakaway force after 90-day dwell >3x fresh with no seal design fix, or controller cannot hold the panel at any mid-fold pose in the gust test"}},{"name":"SUMI-ITO (ink-line anchoring rover)","what":"Named after the carpenter's ink line: a small tracked rover that stakes, drills and installs helical anchors for ASHI legs and logs torque-depth curves as proof of capacity.","how_it_works":"RTK-GNSS plus total-station prism for position (CivDot-class). A hydraulic or electric planetary torque head (target class 5-10 kN.m, assumption) screws 76-89 mm helical piles (assumption) to a torque cut-off chosen by an engineer for the soil class. The rover reacts torque through its own mass plus temporary ground anchors (Romu's body-mass principle). It records torque against depth for each pile and flags refusal (rock), after which the configurator swaps that foot for a rock plate or ballast crate. Output: a pile map registered to the shell datum.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"Retrofit a rented mini-excavator or compact track loader (1.5-3 t) with a commercial helical drive, inline torque sensor, RTK and a logging computer; semi-autonomous drive-to-point","bom_usd":"25,000-60,000 excluding rented base machine (estimate)","test":"Install 40 piles across 3 soil types; load-test 6 piles (tension and compression) against the torque-predicted capacity","pass":"Position error <=25 mm at 95%; measured capacity >= torque-predicted capacity on 6/6 tests; <=20 min per pile average","kill":"Torque-capacity correlation unusable (>30% scatter) in 2 of 3 soils, or >40 min per pile"}},{"name":"KUSABI (wedge latch with proof)","what":"Self-tightening wedge latch on each fold line that proves its own state.","how_it_works":"A spring-driven tapered wedge (kigumi-style) drops into a hardened pocket when the panel reaches its end angle. Taper locking removes play, and a Hall sensor plus a strain gauge on the wedge body report seated and preloaded. TSURU or a human can re-drive the wedge with a standard hex tool. State feeds ORI-SEQ gates and the passport.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"12 latches in LVL and steel variants on the full-size bay rig","bom_usd":"3,000-6,000 (estimate)","test":"Cyclic 1,000 engage/release; freeze-thaw and dust; preload decay over 6 months outdoors","pass":"Detection of seated vs unseated 100% in 1,000 cycles; preload decay <20% in 6 months","kill":"False 'seated' reading >0.5% or wedge jams in ice/dust tests"}},{"name":"TATAMI-KOUJOU (container micro-factory cell)","what":"ORIJO licensee factory: two 40 ft containers unfold into a 910 x 1820 panel line.","how_it_works":"Fixture-first cell after Reframe and AUAR: CNC router cuts facets; cobot 1 places closeouts and hinge hardware against magnetic fixtures; vacuum membrane laminator bonds KASANE membranes; cobot 2 drives fasteners and wedge latches; a fold test rig cycles each module 5 times, weighs it and logs its centre of gravity to the passport.","prototype_12mo":{"build":"Single-line pilot in a leased bay with 1 router, 1 cobot, 1 laminator, 1 fold rig","bom_usd":"350,000-700,000 (estimate)","test":"Produce 2 YOSHI-4 and 4 HOSHI-2 shells; time study per panel","pass":"<=16 labour-h per HOSHI-2 shell and <=60 per YOSHI-4 (targets); zero failed fold-acceptance cycles on the last 3 shells","kill":"Labour-hours per shell not falling below 2x target after the 6th shell"}}],"sizing_reference":{"home_4p":{"modules":"1 KURA-3 + 2 YOSHI-4 + 1 MIURA-W + 3 ASHI-4 (12 legs/piles)","site_labour_person_h":"30-38","elapsed_days":"2-3","piles":12,"basis":"calculated from v3 targets (deploy_hours, ASHI 15 min/pile target) and a 2-person crew","formula":"H = crew x [t_layout + N_pile x t_pile + sum(t_unfold_i) + t_checks]; crew 2; t_layout 1 h; N_pile 12 x 0.25 h = 3 h; unfold = 2 x (2-4 h) YOSHI + 2 h KURA + 1 h MIURA = 7-11 h; checks 4 h; H = 2 x (15-19) = 30-38 person-h"},"hotel_6key":{"modules":"6 HOSHI-2 + 1 YOSHI-4 + 2 KURA-3 + 2 MIURA-W + 9 ASHI-4 (36 piles)","site_labour_person_h":"about 74-78 at L1; about 42-44 at L2 with robotic piling","elapsed_days":"4-5 at L1 (2-person crew)","piles":36,"basis":"calculated from v3 targets","formula":"t_layout 2 h + 36 x 0.25 h (9 h) + 6 x 2 h HOSHI + 2-4 h YOSHI + 2 x 2 h KURA + 2 x 1 h MIURA + 6 h checks = 37-39 h x 2 crew = 74-78 person-h. At L2 an RPD-class or SUMI-ITO rover installs piles (about 3x faster per RPD claim, applied as an assumption) and ORI-SEQ halves the unfold attendance, giving 2 h + 3 h piles + 10-11 h unfold attendance + 6 h checks = 21-22 h x 2 = 42-44 person-h."},"farm_module":{"modules":"T1 farm: 1 KURA-3 + 2 YOSHI-6G + 6 HATA-4 + 4 ASHI-4 (16 piles) + PV wings","site_labour_person_h":"about 63-71 at L1","elapsed_days":"4-5","piles":16,"basis":"calculated; YOSHI-6G unfold assumed equal to YOSHI-4 target (2-4 h); HATA-4 deploy 2 h each (v3 target)","formula":"t_layout 1.5 h + 16 x 0.25 h (4 h) + 2 x (2-4 h) + 6 x 2 h + 2 h KURA + 2 x 1 h MIURA + 6 h checks = 31.5-35.5 h x 2 = 63-71 person-h","note":"Formula includes 2 x 1 h MIURA-W although the module list names no MIURA-W; without them the total is 59.5-67.5 person-h. Reconcile the module list."},"micro_factory":{"value":"about 0.7 home-equivalents per working day","basis":"calculated from AUAR claim","formula":"180 homes/yr / 250 working days = 0.72"}}},"open_problems":["Hinge and membrane stiction after long packed dwell (BEAM precedent): no public data for thick-panel architectural hinges; ORI-SEQ must measure breakaway vs dwell time and temperature.","Torque-to-capacity correlation for robot-installed helical piles in mixed, frozen or rocky soils; when does SUMI-ITO need a load test?","Certification of self-deploying buildings: no code path recognises a sensor-proven latch as equivalent to an inspected fastener; needs engagement with state factory-built programs and ICC.","Wind limits during unfolding: a half-folded thick-panel shell is a sail; gust envelopes and hold poses must be validated full-scale.","Robot payload-to-mass ratio: ETH and MIT research robots were limited by actuators; TSURU's 25-35 kg body vs 5-15 kg payload target is unverified.","Business model risk: every construction-robot company that tried to be builder + manufacturer + tech failed or shrank (Katerra, Veev, Mighty, Diamond Age, ICON layoffs); ORIJO must prove a narrow paid product first.","Throughput claims (AUAR 180/yr, Reframe 250/yr, Cuby 200/yr) are claims; no audited micro-factory utilisation data found.","Lunar: sintered regolith is weak (about 3.4 MPa) and energy-hungry; the pressure boundary must still be launched, so TSUKI remains SPECULATIVE.","Refold reliability across many relocations: there is no field dataset of buildings folded and unfolded more than about 10 times outdoors.","No code path exists yet for a folding, robot-deployed shell; nearest analogues are ICC/MBI 1205 plant certification and design-by-testing. [gaps-2026-10-29]"],"sources":[{"id":"src-veev-tc","title":"Prefab home builder Veev reportedly shutting down after reaching unicorn status last year (TechCrunch, 2023-11-27)","url":"https://techcrunch.com/2023/11/27/prefab-home-builder-veev-reportedly-shutting-down-after-reaching-unicorn-status-last-year/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-veev-hw","title":"Veev Falters: Lessons Learned For Homebuilding Innovation (HousingWire, 2023-12-01)","url":"https://www.housingwire.com/articles/veev-falters-lessons-learned-for-homebuilding-innovation/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-katerra-cd","title":"What does Katerra's demise mean for the contech and modular industries? (Construction Dive, 2021-10-13)","url":"https://www.constructiondive.com/news/what-does-katerras-demise-mean-for-the-contech-and-modular-industries/608037/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-katerra-wiki","title":"Katerra (Wikipedia)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katerra","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-icon-tc25","title":"ICON, a builder of 3D-printed homes last valued around $2 billion, cuts about 25% of staff (TechCrunch, 2025-01-09)","url":"https://techcrunch.com/2025/01/09/icon-a-builder-of-3d-printed-homes-last-valued-around-2-billion-cuts-about-25-of-staff/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-icon-3dp25","title":"ICON Secures $56M Amid Construction 3D Printing Sector's Growing Pains (3DPrint.com, 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Next-Generation ISAM Applications (IEEE Aerospace Conference 2024, 2024)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/AERO58975.2024.10521407","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"p-jiass2024hinge","title":"Design and evaluation of compliant hinges for deployable thick origami structures (Journal of the IASS 65(4), 2024)","url":"https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iass/jiass/2024/00000065/00000004/art00003","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false},{"id":"src-hadrian-cp25","title":"PulteGroup deploys block-laying Hadrian X robot on Florida home (Concrete Products, 2025-02-21)","url":"https://concreteproducts.com/index.php/2025/02/21/pultegroup-deploys-block-laying-hadrian-x-robot-on-florida-home/","type":"news","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true},{"id":"src-irc2024-appbm","title":"ICC Digital Codes - 2024 IRC Appendix BM 3D Printed Building Construction (formerly 2021 IRC Appendix AW); search snippets only, page 403; UpCodes snippet: 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read)","url":"https://shop.iccsafe.org/","type":"code","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false,"added_by":"gaps-2026-10-29"},{"id":"src-evstudio-icc-mbi","title":"EVstudio (31 Oct 2024) ICC/MBI 1200, 1205 and 1210 Standards for Offsite Construction","url":"https://evstudio.com/icc-mbi-1200-1205-and-1210-standards-for-offsite-construction/","type":"trade","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true,"added_by":"gaps-2026-10-29"},{"id":"src-thau-1205","title":"Tiny House Alliance USA (1 May 2026) How ICC/MBI 1205 will raise the price of housing (advocacy; quotes 1205 plant-certification text; reports Virginia and Utah adoption)","url":"https://www.tinyhouseallianceusa.org/how-icc-mbi-1205-will-raise-the-price-of-housing/","type":"advocacy","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true,"added_by":"gaps-2026-10-29"},{"id":"src-icces-ac358","title":"ICC-ES AC358 Helical Pile Systems and Devices (April 2025 edition per purchase link)","url":"https://icc-es.org/acceptance-criteria/ac358/","type":"code","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true,"added_by":"gaps-2026-10-29"},{"id":"src-vasilic2025","title":"Vasilic (2025) Standardization Aspects of Concrete 3D Printing, RILEM Technical Letters (abstract page read)","url":"https://letters.rilem.net/index.php/rilem/article/view/201","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":true,"added_by":"gaps-2026-10-29"},{"id":"src-salet2018","title":"Salet, Ahmed, Bos et al. (2018) Design of a 3D printed concrete bridge by testing, Virtual and Physical Prototyping (abstract via Elicit)","url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2018.1476064","type":"paper","accessed":"2026-10-29","read_primary":false,"added_by":"gaps-2026-10-29"}],"method_note":{"elicit_queries":14,"serpapi_calls_billed":46,"serpapi_note":"6 YouTube calls failed (HTTP 400, helper sent q instead of search_query) and were billed but not logged; retried with search_query.","primary_reads":"WebFetch of news, company, patent and agency pages plus Semantic Scholar/OpenAlex abstracts by DOI; read_primary marks which sources were opened.","raw_log":"research/v4/sweep/raw-build.jsonl","estimates_flag":"BOM figures and the 'assumption' values in ORIJO prototypes are engineering estimates, not quotes."},"verification":{"date":"2026-10-29","method":"Adversarial check of load-bearing claims against primary pages via WebFetch (OpenAlex abstract records by DOI for papers; company, agency, patent and news pages); 2 serp calls (layer serp cap now exhausted at 48/48).","checked":34,"confirmed":24,"confirmed_items":["n01 Kam 2025 (-68% labour h, rework 6.42->0.25%, DOI resolves)","n02 RPD 35 300 vs 100 piles/day, 73 s, sub-cm, 7,000 lb, 500 strikes/min","n03 Baidu AES 24 h per intervention, near experienced operator","n06 FBR patent >=250 Hz pref >=1,000 Hz, ~1 ms planner cycle, priority 2016-07-15","n07 COBOD BOD2 500 mm/s, 4 operators, from USD 400k, setup >=6 h","n08 Skovsporet 36 apts, 6 buildings, BOD3, last building 5 days, 3-person crew","n09 Keating 2017 14.6 m x 3.7 m dome <13.5 h","n10 Gregg 2024 256 cells, 0.0103 g/cm3, 11.38 kPa, 1.1129 MPa, Sci Robot 9(86)","n11/n12 AUAR up to 180 homes/yr, 2 units to Rival, 12-week lead; Reframe <USD 5M, 250 SF/500 MF, 10 homes/8 occupied, USD 40M Aug 2026; Cuby ~USD 10M, 3 acres, 4 unskilled, 12 months, 150-200 homes/yr","n13 Katerra >USD 2B, Ch.11 June 2021; Veev USD 600M, Nov 2023","n15 BEAM dimensions, 16 m3, 1,413 kg, 2nd expansion ~7 h / 25 pulses, 2028","n16 LIFE 77 psi (Dec 2023) and 74 psi vs 60.8 psi, 300 m3","n17 Max Space 2->20 m3, 96 cords x 17,000 lb, 5 people, 6 months","n18 LUNARK 750%, 2 crew, 60 days, -30 C (year not on page)","n19 Canvas -34% Level 5 cycle, Newark Civic Center, Webcor, IUPAT DC16","n22 ESA D-Shape ~2 m/h, next gen 3.5 m/h, 1.5 t, 6 m frame, 2 mm droplets","n23 ICON USD 57.2M NASA award (Dec 2022)","n24 ICON 114 layoffs (~25%), then USD 56M Series C","n25 BotBuilt USD 12.4M seed, 9 homes, ~USD 1/h, framing USD 7-16/sq ft (labour 4-10), 2,000-unit pipeline","n26 E = 1,100 x 9.81 x 1.5 = 16.2 kJ = 0.0045 kWh (computes; YOSHI-4 <=2,200 kg target in v3)","n27 2016-07-15 -> Oct 2025 = about 9 years","pr-diamondage liquidation (3DPrint.com Feb 2025)","p-smith2024 robots built from voxels, robot assembles robot (ICRA 2024 pp. 3624-3631)","home_4p sizing formula computes (30-38 person-h)"],"corrected":[{"item":"numbers.n04 Hadrian X lay rate","was":">300 (>70 m2/h) | 2023 record; >285 blocks/h effective on a 751-block test in 2025","now":">300 blocks/h (USA-format CMU) | Record from FBR's testing and calibration programme (announced 2023-05-08), not an outdoor site build; '>70 m2/h of wall' applies only to the largest block format Hadrian is designed for (conditional, not measured). 2025 factory acceptance test: 751-block structure at >285 blocks/h effective; FBR claims peak up to 360 blocks/h.","source":["src-hadrian-am23","src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"item":"numbers.n05 Hadrian price","was":"AUD 7.8M (about USD 5.09M)","now":"AUD 7.8M (article also gives 5,088,759 without a currency label, presumably USD)","source":["src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"item":"numbers.n14 Boxabl","was":"Boxabl; on-site assembly <1 h (claimed); 2024 net loss about USD 51M","now":"Boxabl; about 744 manufactured vs about 285 delivered and installed by 2025-08-19; 2024 net loss about USD 50.95M. The '<1 h on-site assembly' figure is not stated in the cited sources (unverified).","source":["src-boxabl-bo","src-boxabl-hw"]},{"item":"projects.pr-boxabl outcome","was":"744 built vs 285 delivered by mid-2025; about USD 51M 2024 net loss; Nasdaq listing at about USD 3.5B EV (2026). Unfolding is solved; demand, permits and site work are not.","now":"About 744 built vs about 285 delivered by 2025-08-19; about USD 51M 2024 net loss; SPAC combination with FG Merger II Corp. implying about USD 3.5B enterprise value (350M shares x USD 10). Completion of the Nasdaq listing was not confirmed in the sources read. Unfolding is solved; demand, permits and site work are not.","source":["src-boxabl-bo","src-boxabl-hw"]},{"item":"projects.pr-factoryos status/units","was":"active | Built 3,000-4,000 units, yet filed a WARN notice for all 280 employees in Feb 2026 citing a pipeline gap and loss of capital funding. Big plants die when the order book stalls.","now":"at_risk | About 4,000 units since 2017 (company-reported, 90% affordable), yet filed a WARN notice on 2026-02-13 covering up to all 280 employees, citing lack of new business, a pipeline gap and loss of capital funding. The company said it was not planning to close; the outcome after the 60-day window was not verified. Big plants die when the order book stalls.","source":["src-factoryos-vs"]},{"item":"failures Harbinger","was":"Harbinger/Factory OS WARN notice for 280 staff (Feb 2026) despite 3,000+ units","now":"Harbinger/Factory OS WARN notice for up to 280 staff (Feb 2026) despite about 4,000 units (closure not confirmed)","source":["src-factoryos-vs"]},{"item":"projects.pr-mighty status","was":"closed | Put up for sale after restructuring and layoffs in Jan 2025. Proprietary materials plus a factory plus a builder role burned cash.","now":"for_sale (Jan 2025; later outcome unverified) | Put up for sale via Rock Creek Advisors in Jan 2025 after a restructuring that released staff; no closure was reported in the source. Proprietary materials plus a factory plus a builder role burned cash.","source":["src-mighty-3dp","src-icon-3dp25"]},{"item":"projects.pr-built scale","was":"2018- (solar work, >2 GW reported)","now":"2016- (in the field since 2016; >3 GW of solar installed, >50,000 operating hours, 40+ sites, reported June 2026)","source":["src-built-xlab"]},{"item":"projects.pr-hadrian 'first US homes in Florida'","was":"Record >300 blocks/h (2023); commercial sales at AUD 7.8M after 2025 factory acceptance; first US homes in Florida. Ten years from patents to sales.","now":"Record >300 blocks/h in a 2023 test programme; factory acceptance (>285 blocks/h on a 751-block build) and sale to select partners at AUD 7.8M from Oct 2025; first US build was a single test home for PulteGroup at TerraWalk at Babcock Ranch, Florida (reported Feb 2025). About nine years from patent priority to sales.","source":["src-hadrian-cp25","src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"item":"numbers.n21 McCallum 2026","was":"Laser-sintered lunar simulant interlocking bricks","now":"Binder-free laser sintering of lunar regolith simulant; strength measured on sintered cubic blocks (interlocking Lego-like bricks were designed separately; their strength is not given in the abstract)","source":["p-mccallum2026"]},{"item":"papers.p-mccallum2026 finding","was":"Binder-free laser sintering of lunar simulant into Lego-like interlocking bricks; peak compressive strength about 3.4 MPa.","now":"Binder-free laser sintering of lunar simulant; designs Lego-like interlocking bricks reassemblable without mortar; sintered cubic blocks reach a peak compressive strength of about 3.4 MPa.","source":["p-mccallum2026"]},{"item":"BUILD-S7 how_it_works strength wording","was":"...weak in tension (about 3.4 MPa peak compression in the 2026 brick study)","now":"...about 3.4 MPa peak compressive strength for sintered cubic blocks...","source":["p-mccallum2026"]},{"item":"numbers.n20 CivDot precision","was":"8 mm","now":"3/100 ft (vendor states 8; 3/100 ft is about 9.1) ft (mm)","source":["src-civ-site"]},{"item":"BUILD-S1 volumetric trl_why","was":"Technically proven (Factory OS delivered thousands of units), but repeated financial failure.","now":"Technically proven (Factory OS/Harbinger reports about 4,000 units), but repeated financial failure (Katerra, Veev; Harbinger WARN notice Feb 2026).","source":["src-factoryos-vs"]},{"item":"BUILD-S2 CivDot key_number","was":"8 (3/100 ft) mm","now":"3/100 ft (vendor: 8 mm; about 9.1 mm by conversion)","source":["src-civ-site"]},{"item":"BUILD-S4 Hadrian trl_why","was":"Has built several homes in Australia and the US; first commercial sales only from 2025.","now":"Test builds in Australia and one test home for PulteGroup in Florida (2025); factory acceptance and first sales only from Oct 2025.","source":["src-hadrian-cp25","src-hadrian-ie25"]},{"item":"BUILD-S5 TenFold TRL","was":"PILOT, TRL 7","now":"PILOT, TRL 6","source":["src-tenfold-pat","src-tenfold-yt"]},{"item":"orijo_design.sizing_reference.hotel_6key L2","was":"about 74-78 at L1; about 40 at L2 with robotic piling","now":"about 74-78 at L1; about 42-44 at L2 with robotic piling","source":["calculated"]},{"item":"orijo_design.sizing_reference.farm_module","was":"about 64-72 at L1","now":"about 63-71 at L1 (formula result; module list lacks the MIURA-W counted)","source":["calculated"]}],"removed":[],"unverifiable":[{"item":"Boxabl '<1 h on-site assembly'","note":"not stated in the cited HousingWire or Built Offsite articles; left labelled unverified"},{"item":"Boxabl Nasdaq listing completed in 2026","note":"sources confirm only the SPAC deal with FG Merger II and the implied ~USD 3.5B EV"},{"item":"Harbinger/Factory OS status after April 2026","note":"WARN notice confirmed; closure or rescue not verified (serp cap exhausted)"},{"item":"Mighty Buildings fate after the Feb 2025 sale process","note":"only the for-sale status is confirmed"},{"item":"LUNARK mission year 2020","note":"SAGA page gives Sep-Nov only; already labelled in the file"},{"item":"p-romu2020 findings","note":"DOI resolves to Melenbrink, Rinderspacher, Menges, Werfel, Autom. Constr. 120:103391 (2020), but the abstract was not available in OpenAlex; finding text not re-verified"},{"item":"Hadrian 'first homes' wording","note":"only one US test home (PulteGroup, Florida) confirmed; plural removed"}],"internal_consistency":"All source ids referenced in the file exist in sources[]; 19 sources/papers are listed but not cited by any item (kept as background). Sizing: home_4p computes; hotel_6key L2 recomputed to 42-44 person-h; farm_module recomputed to 63-71 person-h and flagged MIURA-W mismatch; micro_factory 180/250 = 0.72 computes.","verdict":"Mostly sound. No fabricated sources or DOIs found: every DOI checked resolves to the cited paper and every checked number matched its source with the right unit. Errors were in status and framing: Factory OS was marked active though under a WARN notice; Mighty Buildings was marked closed though only for sale; the Boxabl listing and '<1 h assembly' were stated as fact; Hadrian's '>70 m2/h' is conditional and its 'first US homes' was one test home; the McCallum 3.4 MPa came from cubic blocks, not bricks; Built Robotics scale was out of date (>3 GW, not >2 GW); TenFold TRL 7 was overstated (now 6). Two sizing totals were off by a few person-hours."},"certification":[{"id":"C-B1","regime":"IRC Appendix AW (2021) / BM (2024) 3D printed building construction + UL 3401","jurisdiction":"USA (where the appendix is adopted)","status":"optional appendix; adoption varies","applies_to":"3D printed residential walls and elements","requirement":"Only materials listed in a UL 3401 report of findings may be used (UpCodes snippet; ICC text 403)","implication_for_orijo":"Relevant only to optional printed plinths/hearths; the folded shell is not a printed structure.","sources":["src-irc2024-appbm"]},{"id":"C-B2","regime":"ICC-ES AC509 and ICC 1150 (3D automated construction, concrete walls)","jurisdiction":"USA","status":"AC509 approved 2023-08; ICC standard work since 2023-10 (1150-2026 listing unverified)","applies_to":"Proprietary 3D printed concrete wall systems","requirement":"Evaluation report per acceptance criteria (full text restricted)","implication_for_orijo":"Shows the layered route a novel robot-made system follows: optional code appendix (2021 IRC AW), evaluation-service acceptance criteria (AC509, 2023), consensus standard (ICC work from October 2023); the route was still being assembled in 2025-2026.","sources":["src-icces-ac509","src-3dprint-icc-walls","src-icc1150-store","src-vasilic2025"]},{"id":"C-B3","regime":"ICC/MBI 1200 (design/fabrication), 1205 (inspection/regulatory compliance), 1210 (MEP)","jurisdiction":"USA (adopted e.g. by Virginia and Utah)","status":"2021/2023 editions; rejected for the 2024 IBC per advocacy source","applies_to":"Off-site volumetric and panelized construction","requirement":"Initial plant certification with 100 percent inspection of at least one module, then a quality-assurance programme with third-party inspection","implication_for_orijo":"The most likely US path for factory-folded ORIJO shells: certify the micro-factory and the fold passport, not each site. Each licensed micro-factory carries its own plant certification cost.","sources":["src-evstudio-icc-mbi","src-thau-1205"]},{"id":"C-B4","regime":"ICC-ES AC358 helical pile systems","jurisdiction":"USA","status":"current edition April 2025","applies_to":"Screw/helical piles (ASHI legs)","requirement":"Evaluation report for the pile system (full text restricted)","implication_for_orijo":"Robots that drive ASHI screw piles must log install torque so the pile capacity claimed in the evaluation report is evidenced per pile.","sources":["src-icces-ac358"]},{"id":"C-B5","regime":"Design by full-scale testing","jurisdiction":"Netherlands precedent (Eindhoven 3DCP bridge)","status":"precedent","applies_to":"Structures outside codes of practice","requirement":"Certification through physical load testing when calculation methods do not exist","implication_for_orijo":"Plan the KASANE hinge and YOSHI vault certification as test-based (G1 hinge cycles + full-scale load and water tests).","sources":["src-salet2018"]}],"revision_log":[{"date":"2026-10-29","by":"gaps-2026-10-29","change":"Added certification paths, new sources/numbers/papers/projects from the completeness-critic pass; see research/v4/gaps-log.md"}]}